C «-5e s/tJF MAMMALIA. WHITE BEARS. MAMMALIA. THEIR VARIOUS ORDERS AND HABITS POPULARLY ILLUSTRATED BY TYPICAL SPECIES. BY LOUIS FIGUIEB, AUTHOR OF “THE WORLD BEFORE THE DELUGE,” ETC. ETC. ETC. WITH 267 ENGRAVINGS, BY MM. A. M ESN EL, A. DE NEUVILLE, AND E. RIO XL NEW YORK : I). APPLETON AND CO., GRAND STREET. 1870, LONDON ! VIRTUE AND CO., PRINTERS, CITY ROAD. / QL 706 1 91o Sca/'U&& c NOTE. As will be observed on tbe title-page, this work does not profess to be a complete account of tbe Mammalia, but a popular description of tbeir various Orders, illustrated by typical examples; tbe general arrangement of tbeir classification being new, and certainly most simple. Tbe early portion was edited by E. Blythe, Esq., F.Z.S. Tbis acknowledgment is necessary, as that part was . remodelled and considerably augmented. Otherwise tbis book is a free trans- lation. PARKER GrILLMORE (“ tjbique”). March 12, 1870. CONTENTS. Introductory page . 1 MONOTREMATA. PAGE PAGE Ornithorhynchus . . . ... 12 Echidna . . . 14 Duckbill .... . ... 12 Porcupine Ant-eater . . . . . 15 MARSUPIATA. Phascolomes .... . ... 18 Dasyures ... 25 Wombat ..... Thylacins ... 26 Syndactyles .... . ... 19 Sarcophile Kangaroos .... .... 20 Dasyures proper . . . Phalangers .... Pbascogales Tarsipedes .... .... 24 Opossums ... 28 Bandacoots .... . ... 25 CETACEA. Blowing or Spouting (First Tribe) 32 Blowing or Spouting (Second Tribe)- Whales . 33 Porpoise 75 Whales proper 33 Narwhal 77 Rorquals 59 Beluga 82 Cachalot (Sperm Whale) . . . 66 Herbivorous ........ 94 Blowing or Spouting (Second Tribe) 71 Manatee 94 Dolphin 71 Duyong 96 AMPHIBIA. Morse or Walrus 99 Seals — Seals 104 Sea Lion . 112 Common ......... 111 Sea Wolf 112 G-reenland ........ 111 Sea Elephant 112 White-bellied ....... 111 Sea Leopard 112 Capucin ......... 112 Sea Bear 113 PACHYDERMATA. Proboscidea 114 Ordinary Pachyderms 132 Asiatic 123 Hippopotamus 132 African 128 Rhinocerotidae 137 Mammoth 130 Great Indian 138 Mastodon 132 Javanese 141 Vlll CONTENTS. PACHYDERM ATA ( continued ). Ordinary Pachyderms. PAGE Ordinary Pachyderms. PAGE Rhinocerotidse — Suidse — Sumatrian .... . . .141 Domestic . . .169 Keitloa . . . . . . . .156 Phacocheres .... . . .180 Borele Peccaries . . .180 White . . .158 Solipedes . . .181 Hyrax . . .160 Horse proper . . . . . .181 Tapirs Domestic Ass . . . . . .212 American . . .161 Wild Ass . . .219 Indian . . .164 Zebra . . .221 Suidse . . .164 Quagga . . .223 Wild . . .164 Dauw . . .224 RTJMINANTIA. Camels 227 Proper 227 Dromedary 228 Llamas 235 Proper . 235 Paca 237 Vicuna 238 Common Ruminants 239 Giraffe 239 Chamois 245 Gazelle 247 Saiga 248 Nyl-ghau 250 Connochetes ....... 252 Alcephalus 253 Goats 254 Wild 255 Domestic 256 Caprovis genus 259 Sheep 259 Ox genus 272 Common Ruminants. Ox genus — American Bison . . . . 273 Musk . ... 274 European Bison . . . ... 274 Cape Buffalo . . . . ... 276 Yak . ... 276 Jungle Ox . . . Buffalo Common Ox ... . ... 279 Reindeer . ... 292 Elk , . . .297 Deer . ... 299 Red . ... 300 Canada . . .303 Virginian . . . . . . .305 Axis . . .305 Porcine . . .305 Fallow . . .305 Roe . . .307 Tibet Musk . ... 309 Napu . . . .312 EDENTATA. Sloths .314 Unau 315 Ai . • 315 Armadillos 316 Great . . .317 Pichiy 317 Orycteropus 317 Orycteropus — Aard-vark 317 Ant-eaters 318 Great 318 Tamandua 320 Little 320 Pangolins 320 CARNIVORA. Mustelidse 325 Otters 325 Common . 325 Sea 327 Weasels 327 Martens 327 Mustelidse. Martens — Pine 328 Sable 328 Beech 329 Polecats 330 Common 330 CONTENTS, IX CARNIVORA [continued). Mustelidse. Polecats — PAGE Canidae PAGE .... 387 Minx , . .331 Fox .... 387 Ermine . . 331 Common .... .... 387 Ferret . .332 Black .... 394 Weasels proper . . . , . .333 Arctic . . . .394 Gluttons . . 333 Grey .... 395 Skunks . . 334 Cross . . . .395 Badgers . . 335 Dog . .... 395 Common . . 335 Jackal . . . .396 Indian . . 336 Wolf . . . .398 American . . 336 Proper .... . . . .403 Ratels . . 337 Viverridae . . . . . . . . .419 Hyenas Striped . . 337 Mangousts .... . . . .419 . . 338 Civet ...... . . . .420 Spotted . . 338 African .... .... 421 Aard Wolf . . 338 Indian .... . ... 421 Felidae . . . 340 Genet . . . .422 Lion Paradoxurus . . . . . . .422 Soutli African . . . . . . 345 Cynogale .... . . . .422 Persian . . 349 Ictides . . . . . . . . .423 North African . . . . . .353 Coati . . . .423 Tiger . . Racoon . . . .424 Panther Common .... . . . .425 Leopard . . 367 Crab-eating . . . . . . .425 North African . . . . - . 367 Kinkajou .... . . . .425 Ounce Bears Serval . . 376 Brown Wild Cat . . 377 Siberian . ... 432 Domestic Cat . . 377 Black . ... 432 Jaguar Grizzly . . . .432 Puma . . 381 White . . . .433 Lynx . . 382 Sloth . . . 436 European . . 383 Bornean . ... 436 Caracal . . 384 Malay . ... 436 Cheetah . . 385 RODENTIA. Rodents Mole Rats — Rats Rhyzomys .... . ... 455 Black Jerboas , ... 455 Brown . . .442 Common . . . .455 Wood Mouse . . . . Sagitta . ... 456 Common Mouse . . . Pedetes . ... 456 Harvest Mouse . . . . . .443 Jumping Hare . . . . . .456 Field Mice Helamys . . . . , . ... 456 Campagnol Saccomys • , ... 457 Economic Saccophorus . , . ... 457 Water Rat Chinchilla , ... 458 Lemming Lagotis ....... . ... 459 Musk Rat Viscacha , ... 460 Hamster Ctenomys . . . . , . . . .461 Dormouse Capromys , . . .461 Proper Porcupines , . . .462 Muscardine Proper , ... 462 Jerboa Rats Prehensile , . . .464 Mole Rats Synetherus , ... 465 Coast Rats Aulacodus . . . .465 X CONTENTS. RODENTIA ( continued ). Capybara PAGE Tamias, or Ground Squirrels — PAGEl Cobaya Palm . 483i Cavy Paca Burrowing . 4832 Agouti Hackee . 4842 Beavers Spermopbilus . 4842 Myopotamus Souslik . 4842 Squirrel Striped . 4852 European Marmots . 485 5 Indian Common . 486 ) Malabar Quebec . 488 3 Fox Maryland . 488' Flying Squirrels Prairie Dog . 488 Sciuropteres Leporides . 489 Pteromys Lepus . 489 Anomalurus Hare Tamias, or Ground Squirrels . , . . 483 Rabbit . 494 INSECTIYORA. Mole Macroscelides . . . . . . .513 Common Rhynchocyon .... .... 513 Blind Desman .... 514 Woogura .... Muscovite .... .... 514 Astromyctes .... .... 510 Pyrenean .... Scalops .... 510 Hedgehogs Cbrysocbloris .... Common .... 518 Sbrew Mice .... Long- eared .... .... 518 Common .... Tanrecs . . . .519 Etruscan .... .... 512 Tendracs .... . . . .519 Giant . . . .512 Tanrecs .... 519 Water .... 512 Gymnura .... 519 Oared Tupaia ....... . . . .519 Solenodon .... 513 CHEIROPTERA. Cheiroptera . . .521 Yespertilionidse. Rhinolophus — - Yespertilionidse .... . . .526 Great Horse-shoe .... . 529 Taphozons . . .527 Megadermes . 529 Noctilios . . .527 Rhinopomes . 529 Yespertilio . . .527 Pteropina . 529 Pipistrella .... . . .527 Pteropus ....... . 529 Noctilio . . . . . . . .527 Edible . 531 Long-eared . . . . . . .527 Edwards’ . 531 Murina . . . „ . . . .527 Common . 531 Molossus . . .528 Red-necked . . 531 Nycteris . . .528 Yampires . 531 Rhinolophus .... . . .528 Phyllostomes . 534 Giant . . .528 Glassophages . 534 Tricuspid . . . . . . .528 Stenodermes . 534 Lesser Horse-shoe . . . . . 529 Desmodes QTJADRTJMANA. Galeopithecidse .... . . .539 Makis . 543 Colugo . . .540 Maki or Macacos . 544 Cheiromys ...... . . .541 Ruffled . 544 Aye-aye Ring-tailed . 544 CONTENTS. xi QUADRUMANA ( continued ). PAGE Makis. Maki or Macacos — Brown 544 Red 544 White-fronted 545 Black-fronted 545 White-footed 545 Crowned 545 Indris 545 Proper 545 Propithecus 545 Avahi 546 Tarsius 547 Spectre 547 Galago 547 Senegal 548 Demidoff 548 Bushy-tailed 548 Perodicticus 548 Loris 549 Slender 550 Slow-paced 550 Ouistitis 550 Midas 552 Tamarins 552 Monkeys 553 Prehensile Tailed. Howlers 556 Lagothrix 558 Eriodes 558 PAGE Monkeys. Prehensile Tailed — Ateles 558 Sapajou 560 Non-prehensile Tailed. Callithrix 563 Saimiri 563 Nocthora 564 Saki 564 Brachyures 566 Cynocephali 567 Mandrills 569 Cynocephalus proper 571 Baboons 571 Chacmas 571 Papios 574 Macaques 574 Cynopithecus 574 Magot 575 Macaque proper 577 Mangabey 578 Guenons . . . • 579 Semnopitheci 581 Nasica 582 Semnopitheci proper .... 583 Colobus 584 Anthropomorphous 585 Gibbons 586 Orang 589 Gorilla 593 Chimpanzee 602 ERRATA. Page 112, line 36, Sea Bear should he Sea Leopard. Page 445, line 17, Common or Small Field Mouse should be Campagnol, or Short- tailed Field Mouse. > MAMMALIA The Mammalia constitute the highest and most important class of Vertebrata. They interest us more than the other classes, because they furnish us with those animals which are most useful in supplying us with food, in aiding us in our labours, and in providing us with the raw material required for so many of our manufactures. A land-inhabiting animal of this class is recog- nised at the first glance ; for its external and characteristic marks are numerous. The subordinate marine group of Cetacea, however, supplies rather a marked exception, consequent upon its adapta- tion to exclusively aquatic habits. Among the Yertebrata, these animals alone have, as their name imports ( mammon ), teats, which are situated either on the breast, or on the belly, or on both, and by means of which they suckle their young. The number of teats, in general, corresponds with the number of young of which each litter is composed. The majority of the Mammalia are covered with hair. Some, however, have smooth skins : as, for instance, the Whale and Porpoise-; others, as the Pangolins (. Manis ), are clad with dermal scales, which are altogether unlike those of Pep tiles or Fishes. The size of the Mammalia varies extremely : the scale extend- ing from the Whale and the Elephant to the Mouse, and to the most diminutive of Shrews, which are considerably less than half the size of the very smallest of the Mouse genus. Although less brilliant than the feathers of Birds and the scales of Fishes, the coats of the Mammalia offer to the eye very agreeable shades of colour. But nothing varies more than the peculiar nature of this coat. It is enough for us to remember, as a type of these differences, the hair of Fallow Deer, the bristles of the wild B 2 MAMMALIA. Boar, the prickles of Hedgehogs and the quills of Porcupines, and the wool of the domestic Sheep and of the equally domestic Alpaca. The colour of this same coat varies much less. The changes are nearly always from white to black, from reddish brown to yellowish. The brightest hues are found amongst the Monkeys and the Bats. As a general rule, the hair of the Mammalia falls off about spring or autumn, and is then replaced by new hair : this is what is called the shedding of the coat, which in some species takes place twice in the year. The scales, nails, horns, flakes of baleen (or so-called whale-bone), which certain Mammalia have, are pro- duced merely by the excessively close contact of the roots of the hair, the horny filaments of which join themselves firmly together, and compose solid laminae or blades. The general form of the body of Mammalia is determined by their bony skeleton. The form of the skull varies exceedingly among the Mammalia. Some, such as the Bhinoceros, have on the head or on the nose certain appendages. These appendages are sometimes merely the result of a very close conjunction of the roots of the hair, and belong to the skin ; such is the case with the horn or horns upon the face of the Bhinoceros. In other cases, the horns are placed on the skull itself, and belong to the frontal bones. All the animals provided with true horns are comprised in the natural order of Buminantia. When these appendages fall off every year, and are then re- newed, they are called bois {antlers), as in the case of the Stags. When they are hollow, investing a bony core, and are never renewed, they are called horns : these are found on the Ox, the Sheep, the Goat, &c.* Both horns and antlers vary a great deal in their shape. Other animals present a singular anomaly in the development of the nose. In the Elephant, we find this organ considerably elongated, and forming a trunk, which is used for prehension. At other times, this organ is less elongated, less retractile, as in the case of the Tapir and of many insectivorous animals, some of which are obliged to dig up the earth in search of their food. * A third kind of horn will be duly noticed in its place, that of the cabril or prong-horn (Antilocapra Americana ) . — Ed. Uu. MAMMALIA. 3 The species of the Mammalia vary in their forms according to the uses which the animals have to make of them. Nearly all of the Mammalia have four limbs. The Cetacea have no abdominal members, and their anterior members are formed like fins or paddles for swimming. The organs of sense are generally more developed in this class of animals than in all those we have hitherto studied. The sense of touch, which is almost wanting in some — as the Horse and the Ox — because their extremities are covered by hoofs, is very highly developed in Monkeys. With these animals, the upper member is terminated by an organ of prehension, which can in a manner mould itself on the objects it takes hold of, and which imparts to the sense of touch an enhanced delicacy. The sense of vision alone is highest in the class of Birds. The seeing apparatus is, in general, more developed in the Mammalia that prowl by night, than in those which seek their food by day. Some which, like the Moles, live underground, have excessively small eyes, over which the skin is merely attenuated in certain species of Mole, there being no visual aperture whatever. Yery highly developed in carnivorous animals, the sense of smell is generally less developed in the other classes of Mammalia. It is acute in the Buminantia and in the Solipedes. The more timid and the weaker the animal, the finer is its sense of hearing. This sense, moreover, undergoes great variations in the Mammalia. In aquatic Mammalia, it is comparatively dull, with some exceptions (p. 35). The taste differs equally, according as the Mammalia are her- bivorous, insectivorous, or carnivorous. The muscular system depends on the form and manner of loco- motion and on the length of the animal. The nervous system among the animals of this class only differs by having certain of its anatomical elements more or less developed. In general, the brain is sufficiently voluminous, and increases in size in proportion as the animal rises in the organic scale.. The functions of nutrition are performed in the same manner in nearly all the Mammalia ; so that the digestive organs vary but very little in this great class. The upper orifice of the digestive tube, or the mouth , is mostly provided with teeth, the form of which depends on the food upon b 2 4 MAMMALIA. which, the animal lives. The teeth are divided into incisors , canines, and molars. The last-mentioned are the most useful. In the Carni- vora, they are sharp, and arranged in such a manner as to act like the blades of a pair of scissors. In the Herbivora, they are flat and roughish. In the Insectivora, they are armed with little points, which fit into each other. The canine teeth, indispensable to the Carnivora for tearing up their prey, assume sometimes a consider- able development, and form what are called the tusks, as in the wild Boar and some other animals. The tusks of the Elephant are nothing else hut the prolongation of the canine teeth, projecting from the mouth. In the Whale, the teeth are replaced by flexible blades, furnished with hair, and fixed firmly to the jaw : these are called the whale-bone plates or lamince ( baleen ).* Certain genera of Edentata are also toothless, as the Ant-eaters and the Pangolins, and again the Monotremata. The upper maxillary bone, which forms the jaw, is immovable in the Mammalia. Whilst the aliments are undergoing mastication, they are satu- rated with a liquid called saliva. The apparatus which furnishes this liquid is composed of three glands — parotid, sublingual, and submaxillary. The saliva varies in its amount of development according to the kind of food which is taken. It is very highly developed in the aquatic Mammalia. The deglutition is effected by the pharynx and the oesophagus, which serve as a conduit for conveying the food into the stomach. All the Mammalia have but one stomach, with the exception of the Buminantia, which have four. The first and largest is called the paunch ; it occupies a great part of the abdomen. The food stays there but a short time, passing thence into the bonnet (honeycomb bag) , or second stomach. This second stomach of the Buminantia is a little cavity which is in front of the paunch, and which receives from that reservoir the alimentary matter. After having saturated it with the macerating juices, it sends it back again to the oesophagus, and thence to the mouth, in order that it may undergo a second mastication. The food now descends into the third stomach, which has received the name of feuillet, or leaf (many-plies), on account of the broad longitudinal folds with *But the foetal whale has the rudiments of teeth, each provided with its proper nerve and hlood-vessels ; a most noteworthy adherence to the general type. MAMMALIA. 5 which it is lined in the interior. The fourth cavity, which is the true stomach, has received the name of caillette , or rennet-hag*, because it has the property (on account of the gastric juice with which its surface is saturated) of causing milk to coagulate. The first three stomachs, the paunch, the honey-comb bag, and the many-plies, communicate with the (esophagus, so as to allow the aliment to return easily into the mouth. From the rennet-bag, the food, going through an opening called the pylorus, passes into the intestines. There the alimentary mass yields all its nutritious elements, and is then evacuated. The length of the intestines varies in the Mammalia according to the kind of food they eat. Thus, in the Carnivora, their length is only three or four times as much as the length of the animal’s body ; while in the Herbivora the intestines are from twelve to twenty-eight times its length. In the domestic Cat the intestines are proportionately longer than in any of its wild congeners, having thus gradually become adapted (in a long series of genera- tions) to a less exclusively carnivorous regimen. The apparatus for the circulation of the blood has for its central organ the heart — a hollow muscle, composed of four cavities : two auricles and two ventricles. In all Mammalia there is a double circulation of the blood; there exists a great and a little circula- tion. The venous blood which comes from all parts of the body into the right auricle of the heart, conveyed by the hollow veins, passes first into the right ventricle, which sends it through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. There it is transformed into arterial blood — that is to say, it absorbs the oxygen of the air ; then it returns to the left auricle by the pulmonary veins. Thence it passes into the left ventricle of the heart, and discharges itself into the artery called the aorta, and thence into the other arteries, which distribute it throughout the whole body. The blood then comes back from all parts of the animal’s body into the right auricle of the heart by the veins — consequent upon the com- munication which is established between the veins and arteries, in the immediate vicinity of the tissues, by the general capillary net- work or system, The respiratory apparatus occupies, in Mammalia, the upper part of the bony framework formed by the ribs and the sternum , or breast bone. This apparatus is composed of lungs — double 6 MAMMALIA. organs suspended to the two sides of tlie chest — and of the tube called the trachea, which puts the lungs in communication with the external air. The trachea is a cylindrical membranous tube, at first single, and which then separates into two parts, called the bronchial tubes , which soon lose themselves in an infinite number of little ramifications in the midst of the substance of the lung. The ramifications of the bronchial tubes may be compared, in their form, to the roots of a tree. The lining of the rami- fications of the bronchial tubes is formed of a membrane of a loose texture, permeable to the air, and which allows it to pass freely into all the cells of the pulmonary tissue. It is in this tissue that the capillary vessels, which are to extend as far as the pulmonary veins, come and abut ; and it is thus that the venous blood finds itself exposed to the action of the oxygen, which modifies its nature and transforms it into arterial blood. The mechanism of respiration is effected by the elevation of the ribs and the contraction of the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a flat- muscle, which separates the cavity of the abdomen from that of the chest. It is fixed, on one side, to the vertebral column, and on the other, to the base of the bony framework formed by the sternum and the ribs. When it con- tracts, it diminishes the transversal diameter of the chest, by increasing its antero-posterior diameter ; then, and by the effect of the atmospheric pressure, the air precipitates itself into the lungs by the mouth or by the nostrils, and by following the course of the bronchial tubes, penetrates into all the pulmonary cells. Such is the phenomenon of inspiration. Then the diaphragm becomes relaxed, the ribs and the pulmonary cells, by their own elasticity, return to their original positions, and drive out the gas with which they were filled. This phenomenon is called expiration. During the sojourn of the air in the ramifications of the lung, the oxygen of the air inspired is combined with the elements of the blood ; in such a manner that the composition of the gas which issues from the lungs is very different from that of the air inspired. The gas driven out of the lung during the expiration contains less oxygen, and is loaded with a considerable quantity of carbonic acid gas, the oxygen of the air combining with the rejected carbon which is conveyed by the venous blood into the lungs. The respiratory movements vary much in their frequency MAMMALIA. 7 according to the medium in which the Mammalia live, and according to their size and strength. Of all the animals, the Mammalia are those which show the greatest intelligence ; but this intelligence varies much according to the different animals. It is, above all, applied to the necessity of self-preservation, the search for food, and the reproduction of their species. This faculty shows itself equally in many other cases, which we shall have to point out in detail in the sequel of this volume. Nature has provided with admirable care and an infinite provi- dence for all the wants of the Mammalia. To the animal of a mild and peaceable character, to which fighting and struggling against too redoubtable adversaries is forbidden, she has provided the means of avoiding and escaping from its enemies. Some are marvellously organized for running, as the Hare and the Gazelle. Others hide themselves in subterranean retreats, which serve them at the same time as barns, in which to preserve their provisions against the winter : such are the Rat, the Marmot, &c. Others, Kke the Armadillo, present to their adversaries an invulnerable cuirass. Some, erecting their bristles, present to the enemy a forest of spikes. There is not one animal, however weak it may be, which has not its artifices and means of defence against its most terrible enemies. If it were otherwise, all of those feeble creatures would have been soon exterminated. Man has reduced to a state of domestication, and has subjugated to his will, so as to make of them useful assistants in his labours, sundry races of Mammalia. In the state of domesticity the animal undergoes a physical transformation, and its descendants become still more modified. We shall have to insist particularly, in this volume, on the manners and habits of domestic animals. The classification of the Mammalia which will be followed in this work is that of Cuvier, modified by the discoveries and observations of subsequent naturalists. True to our plan of exposition, we shall arrange the Mammalia according to the degree of the state of perfection of their organism. We will begin with those singular beings which hold the middle place between Birds, Fishes, and Mammalia, which are called Ornithorhynchince and Echidnce , and of which De Blainville rightly made a separate order, under the name of Monotremata. 8 MAMMALIA. We shall then study the Marsupials, an anomaly of organization which is quite peculiar to them. Their young, instead of being born in the perfect state, as with the rest of the Mammalia, come into the world, if we may use the expression, unfinished, and are kept by the mother in a special pouch, until their more complete development is attained. After this order of abnormal Mammalia, will come an order which also presents considerable anomaly of organization — we mean the marine Mammalia, or Cetacea. Different from the majority of the Mammalia, in that the Cetacea are nearly all aquatic, and in the Whale, the Cachalot (. Physeter ), &c., the superior and inferior members are modified in such a manner as to remind one in no respect of the disposition of the members in other Mammalia. All of these singularities of structure justify us in giving them the place we do in the order of our distribution, which is founded on the increasing state of perfection of their organization. After the marine Mammalia, we place the Amphibia, which present the peculiarity of being constituted with a view to their double existence on land and in the water. After this series of what we may call abnormal orders of Mammalia, we pass on to the Mammalia of a more regular organization, but which are yet far from realizing all of the dispositions of the structure of the superior Mammalia : we allude to the Pachydermata and the Puminantia, which are so far wanting in the sense of touch, that the principal organ of this sense, that is to say, the extremity of the members, is often partly enclosed in a horny casing, called the hoof. With the Pachydermata and the Puminantia, we enter into a plan of organic structure already brought to a state of high perfec- tion, and this character is still more marked as we advance in the study of the rest of the Mammalia. The Edentata are those singular creatures, designated by the name of Sloths (. Bradypus ) and Armadillos (Dasypus), whose characteristic is the absence of the incisive teeth, and which sometimes have their bodies covered with scaly plates. But the Carnivora, the Podentia, the In- sectivora, and even the Cheiroptera, present no longer any anomaly of organization, and answer exactly to the type, which we may call normal, representing this class of animals. The last order of Mammalia, the Quadrumana, contains MAMMALIA. 9 creatures superior, by tbeir organization, to tbe rest of the animals which we have just passed in review. They are provided, indeed, for the most part, with an organ of prehension and of touch, which is wanting in other animals ; they have a hand, and this character accompanies a degree of intelligence higher than is generally found in the other orders of Mammalia. The Quadrumana constitute the last step on the ladder of the animal series. With them the animals culminate, and after them, in the order of creation, comes man alone, a superior being whom we nevertheless must physically compare with the rest of the animal creation. The following table sums up the classification of the Mammalia which will be followed in this work : — 1st Order, Monotremata. 2nd 99 Marsupiata . 3rd 99 Cetacea. 4th 99 Amphibia. oth 99 Pachydermata. 6th 99 Euminantia. 7th 99 Edentata. 8th 99 Carnivora. 9th 99 Eodentia. 10th 99 Insectivora. 11th 99 Cheiroptera. 12th Quadrumana. * * The Mammalia have also been divided, primarily, into the sub-classes Im- placentalia and Placentalia . The former of these comprises only the Monotremata and the Marsupiata. The latter fall into the leading series, which may he termed Zodphagoida and Phytophagoida ; the one subsisting mainly on animal products and the .more highly azotized parts of vegetables, the other subsisting chiefly upon vegetable products, although subordinate exceptional cases occur in both instances. The Zoophagoida next divide into the true Cetacea, on the one hand, and the rest of the contained orders on the other : the Phytophagoida, in like manner, divide into the Edentata on the one hand, and the rest of the contained orders on the other. The Cetacea and the Edentata may he considered as the abnormal divisions of their respective series. The Zoophagoida culminate in Man ; the Phytophagoida culminate in the Elephant group. — Ed. ORDER OF MONOTREMATA. “ Natura non facit salturn ” was a dictum of Linnaeus, which means that there exist between all living beings gradations and transi- tions, which render a rigorously exact classification very difficult, and sometimes impossible. We said in the preceding volume of this work : “ Nature makes transitions, Naturalists make divisions” For, in fact, there do not exist in organised beings such accurately marked divisions as naturalists have invented for facilitating their studies. All is connected and linked together in creation. Creatures pass insensibly, without fits or starts, from the simplest to the most complex organization ; from the rudest to the most advanced. Nature arranges these transitions with infinite art ; she softens down, by intermediate tints, the crudity which might result from the contrast of very different colours. All the parts of the grand work are thus blended together with a sublime harmony, which fills the soul of the observer with a well-merited admiration. We shall find in the first order of Mammalia a striking confirmation of these ideas.* The Monotremata resemble at the same time Mammalia, Birds, and Reptiles. In the Monotre- mata, as in birds, the urine, the excrements, and the products of generation, are evacuated by one common orifice, named the cloaca . The name Monotremata, given them by M. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, very well expresses this principal peculiarity of their organiza- tion : it signifies one single hole (fiovog, single, alone ; rpri/ua , an orifice). Nevertheless this characteristic alone would not suffice to enable us to recognise the animals which we are now occupied in considering ; for this is found equally among certain of the Edentata. And so De Blainville thought that we ought to substitute for the preceding denomination that of Ornitho- * It must not be supposed, however, that in the existent condition of the animal kingdom, there is a complete intergradation of all forms of life, such as the author apparently contends for. This is very far from being the truth. — Ed. OEDEE OF MONOTEEMATA. 11 delphes, wishing to show by this name that the reproductive organs of these Mammalia, and the manner in which they accom- plish their generative functions, remind one, in different ways, of what passes among birds. However, this expression was never adopted, and we will preserve the first denomination, so as to comply with what is usually accepted. The Monotremata resemble birds again in their mouth, which is toothless, and which terminates in a sort of horny beak, of a rather singular form. They are like reptiles as far as the form of the shoulder is concerned, for it presents, as in the Saurians (Lizards and Cro- codiles), a double clavicle or collar-bone. In all other respects they are true Mammalia. They have mammae, very rudimentary indeed, but which secrete a milky fluid, destined to nourish their young. These glands are deprived of externally visible udders and are consequently scarcely notice- able, which explains how for a long time there were some who denied their existence. The Monotremata are provided with four unguiculated members ; their bodies are covered with hair, and they have marsupial bones, like the animals which compose the second order of Mammalia, although these bones, in their case, do not support the pouch which is the distinguishing feature of the latter. Much discussion has taken place on the question as to whether the Monotremata are oviparous or viviparous. It has been well proved now that they give birth to their young alive ; but it cannot be doubted that their mode of gestation differs greatly from that of the ordinary viviparous animals. All naturalists agree in saying that in this respect they resemble much the ovo-viviparous Vertebrata, that is to say, those in which the egg is hatched in the mother’s body, by interior and direct incubation ; such are the Yiper among reptiles, and, among fishes, some of the Hay and Shark tribe. Only two families of Monotremata are at present known : viz. the Duckbill ( Ornithorhynchus ) and the Porcupine Ant-eater [Echidna). The discovery of these strange animals only dates back as far as the year 1722. The Ornithorhynchus and the Echidna inhabit exclusively Tasmania (or Yan Diemen’s Land) and Australia, that country so remarkable for the singularity of its fauna, and in 12 MAMMALIA. which seem to be preserved the botanical and zoological types and creations belonging to very ancient periods of our globe. The Family of Ornithorhynchus. — The Ornithorhynchus (“ bird’s beak,” from opvig, a bird, and piyy^og, beak) is an animal organised for the aquatic life. Its feet have five toes, terminated by stout nails. The front feet are completely palmated or webbed, and the interdigital membrane is very highly developed, for it ' Fig. 1. — Duckbill ( Ornithorhynchus anatinus ). extends beyond the nails. The tail is broad, of middling length, and flattened on its lower surface, to facilitate swimming. The beak is flattened, and is not much unlike that of a Swan or Duck. Two great horny excrescences, placed on each jaw, supply the place of molars. Its coat is pretty thick, and is of a brown colour, more or less tinged with russet. In the males, the heels of the posterior members are each armed with a spur or dew claw, pierced with a hole at its extremity. OEDEE OF MONOTEEMATA. 13 This spur allows to escape, at the will of the animal, a liquid, secreted by a gland which is situated on the thigh, and with which the spur communicates by a broad subcutaneous conduit. Various conjectures have been made on the part that this spur and the liquid with which it is furnished have to play. It was thought for a long time that they constituted their offensive and defensive weapons, and that the secretion was venemous, like that of the fangs of certain Snakes. What gave rise to this solution of the difficulty, was the story of an accident which had happened to a sportsman who was pricked by the spur of an Ornithorhynchus, a story which was transmitted in 1817 to the Linnsean Society of London, by Sir John Jameson, then residing in Australia. It was said that the hunter’s arm swelled up immediately after he had received the wound, and that all the symptoms of poisoning bv a venom analogous to that of Snakes showed themselves. The evil at last yielded to external applications of oil, and to the internal use of ammonia ; but the man was more than a month ! before he recovered the entire use of his limbs. Many modern travellers deny that the spur of the Ornithorhynchus is a dangerous weapon ; some even affirm that the animal never uses it in its defence. What M. J. Verreaux states is no doubt true. According to that naturalist, the liquid secreted by the gland communicating with the spur has nothing venemous about it. The organ in question, very much developed in the males, is quite rudimentary in the females, and, as she ages, disappears entirely. In short, nothing is more singular than the organization of this animal, which resembles the Bird, the Fish, the Reptile, and the Mammalia, and which seems to have been created on purpose to drive the classifiers to despair. The Duckbill inhabits the sides of the lakes and the banks of the rivers of JSTew Holland and Van Diemen’s Land. They ' dig burrows for themselves, and never leave them during the day. They are not, however, absolutely nocturnal. When they | have a family to bring up,— their increasing wants giving them fresh energy, — they bravely face the light of the sun. They swim almost as rapidly as a fish, and run on land with no less facility ; only they are obliged to come frequently to the surface of the water to breathe. They feed on aquatic grubs, on molluscs, and on worms ; it is said that the mud even can serve 14 MAMMALIA. for their sustentation in default of other aliment. If one tries to* catch them, they endeavour to bite ; but their beak is too weak to do one any harm. It is at the bottom of their burrow, in a sort of nest formed of interlaced roots, that the females deposit their little ones. M. J. Yerreaux was the first who described their mode of suckling their young. It appears that the mother makes her young ones follow her into the water, and that she diffuses her milk around her ; this liquid floats to the top of the water, and is immediately sucked up by her young. This manner of proceeding, which has no analogy in any other order of Mammalia, would suffice in itself alone to make the Duckbill one of the most astonishing of animals. This creature seems to accommodate itself to bondage very badly. Mr. Bennett possessed two young ones, which he had taken himself in a burrow; and although he had not removed them from their native country, and bestowed upon them the most assiduous atten- tions, he could not keep them alive : they died after five weeks of captivity. “ They were,” says Mr. Bennett, “ very frolicsome little things, and played like kittens. They were very fond of dabbling about in a dish filled with water and furnished with a tuft of grass ; they slept a great deal, especially during the day. Their food consisted of bread sopped in water, of hard boiled eggs, and meat chopped very fine.” Dp to the present time only one species of Duckbill is known — the Ornithorkynchus anatinus — an animal of about the size of a small Otter, which is called by the Australian colonists “ the Diver Mole.” Do living specimen has ever been brought to Europe. Family of Echidna. — The Porcupine Ant-eaters have squat, thick- set bodies, low on their legs, the tail very short, the beak and tongue narrow and elongated, the toes armed with nails for digging, the back covered with prickles much thicker than those of the Hedgehog, intermingled with bristly hairs. The males have the spur, as in the Duckbill. They inhabit sandy places, dig themselves burrows in the sand, and live on ants, which they catch by projecting their tongue, covered with a viscous humour, into the dwellings of those insects. Hence the name of Myrmecophagi (eaters of ants), which was formerly given to ORDER OF MONOTREMATA. 15 them, but which is now restricted to the Ant-eaters proper of South America. We possess no further information respecting the Echidnse. Some of these animals have lived in captivity. They remained during the greatest part of the time plunged in a sort of torpor, rolled up in a ball like the Hedgehog. They were not fierce, and seemed to take a pleasure in being caressed. Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard, who brought over in their ship, the Astrolabe, one of these animals, fed it on sugared liquids. One lived for about three years in the London Zoological Gardens. Fig. 2. — Porcupine Ant-eater ( Echidna aculeata ). The Echidna aculeata is two or three times as large as the European Hedgehog. It is found on the mainland of Australia ; being replaced in the island of Tasmania by a second species, the E. setosa, which has comparatively few prickles and much close fur between them. Some bones of a much larger extinct species have been discovered on the mainland of South Australia. ORDER OF MARSUPIATA. The Marsupials, called also Didelph.es in Blainville’s classification, are characterised by the existence, on the anterior portion of the pelvis, of two long, narrow, articulated, and movable bones, which serve in the females, at least in the majority of the species, to support a pouch, situated below the abdomen, and called the marsupial purse or bag ( marsupium , a purse) . These bones, which have taken the name of marsupial bones, are not peculiar to the females ; they occur also in the males. The animals which are provided with them constitute, therefore, a very great anomaly among the Mammalia, especially as this modification of the skeleton is connected with a very peculiar mode of generation. In the Marsupials, in fact, the young, when they leave the uterus, are not perfectly formed, as is the case with the rest of the Mammalia ; they are prematurely expelled thence, and attain their full development in the abdominal pouch. Thence two phases in the gestation : the uterine gestation and the marsupial gestation ; the first relatively short, the second much longer. We thus find that these animals have, as we may say, two births : the one coin- ciding with the arrival of the young one in the purse or bag ; the other with its departure from this natural cradle, and its contact with the outer world. The duration of the gestation, considered in its two elements, varies according to its species. In the larger Kangaroos the foetus is introduced into the pouch on or about the thirty- eighth day after fecundation, and it remains there for eight months. It is not, as one might suppose, by an internal force — by a more or less energetic muscular action — that the transfer of the young from the uterus to the marsupial purse is effected. From the experiments of a learned English anatomist, Professor Owen, it appears that the mother herself draws them down, by OEDEE OE MAESUPIALS. IV seizing them with her lips. This is how she proceeds in this opera- tion : applying her two fore-paws with force to the sides of the pouch, she drags these sides in opposite directions, so as to distend them and enlarge the opening, as we do when we untie a small bag or purse. She then introduces her muzzle into the pouch, and lying on the ground, so as to be in the most favourable position, she extracts the foetus, which has passed through the first phase of its existence. Then, without its ever using its members, she places it over one of her mammae, which it would be powerless of itself to reach, and holds it there till it has seized the teat. Arrived at this point, the young one has no further need of its mother’s assistance ; it adheres firmly to the teat, and cannot be separated from it unless some external violence is used. Nevertheless, its strength is not yet sufficient to render it capable of self-sustenta- tion ; that is to say, it is as yet incapable of sucking in the milk by which it is to be nourished. To prevent this from causing the young one to waste away and die of starvation, the female is pro- vided with a muscle, which, by contracting on the teat, causes the milk to be injected into its mouth. From what is stated above, we see that the essential difference between the Marsupials and the other Mammalia consists in their young requiring a mammary nourishment at a much less advanced period of their development. The marsupial bones, and the purse supported by these bones, are the consequences of this necessity. During the second period of gestation, the organization is com- pleted ; the new creature approaches more and more to its perfect form and final state of development. In the larger Kangaroos, the hair appears in the sixth month. From the beginning of the eighth month, the young Kangaroo puts its nose frequently out of doors, that is to say, protrudes its head from the marsupial purse, and as a prelude to its approaching independent existence, nibbles here and there the tender grass. At last it makes its entrance into the world, and ventures a few timid jumps, as it follows its mother. It begins now to live on its own responsibility ; but for some time it will return to its former hiding-place, either to find there a place of refuge in case of danger, or by its mother’s milk to make up for the insufficiency of the nourishment which its weak state has allowed it to procure. So one may see sucking at the same time great young ones almost emancipated, and weak creatures the produce of c 18 MAMMALIA. more recent litters, adhering to their respective mammas. It is for this reason that the female Marsupials always possess more mammae than the number of young produced at each litter. Nearly all the Marsupials belong exclusively to the Australian region ; where, moreover, very few other kinds of Mammalia are found. A single family, that of the true Opossums (Didelphidce) , inhabits America. That which is amazing is, that we find in this order a series of groups analogous to those of the ordinary Mammalia : Insectivora, Podentia, Carnivora, Puminantia, Quadrumana. Cuvier was not mistaken, therefore, when he wrote, in 1829, in his Regne Animal , “ One should say that the Marsupials form a class apart, parallel to that of the ordinary quadrupeds, and divisible into like orders.” This opinion has been still further confirmed by the discovery of fossil remains belonging to some species of great size, which must have corresponded with our Pachydermata. Professor Owen and others have made out some fossilized species of this order which were considerably larger than a Horse. The remains of Marsupials have been collected in the gypsum strata near Paris, in Auvergne, and in England. In geological times, then, Europe possessed marsupial animals, and perhaps in a very remote age the Marsupials composed an entire class, parallel to that of the Mammalia, as Cuvier suggested.* The order of Marsupials is divided into four families, viz. : the Phascolomes, the Syndactyles, the Hasyures, and the Opossums or Didelphes. The Family oe the Phascolomes.— The Phascolomes, or Wombats, are the representatives of the Podentia among the Marsupials. Like them, they are characterised by the absence of the canine teeth and the existence of an unoccupied space between the incisors and the molars. Their toes, to the number of five to the extremity of each limb, are provided with nails, suited for digging. There is only one genus in this family, and it contains three well-determined species : the Common Wombat (. Phascalomys wombat , Eig. 3)*, the Flat-nosed Wombat (P. platyrhinus) , and the * The most ancient of known Mammalia occur in the triassic formation. Others n the “ dirt-bed ” which underlies the lias. The Insectivora, as well as the Marsu- piata, appear to have had representatives at those exceedingly remote geological eras. All hitherto discovered were of diminutive size. — Ed. ORDER OF MARSUPIALS. 19 Broad- fronted Wombat (P. latifrons). The bones of an extinct species (P. Magnus) have also been satisfactorily determined. The Wombat is a thick-set dumpy animal, with no tail, a broad head, thick coat, and is a flat-footed walker. It has short ears and middling- sized eyes. It burrows in the ground, and lives on vegetable substances, especially roots. Of a mild but stupid character, it can be easily tamed, and might be made very profitable, for its flesh is good, and its fur, though coarse, might Fig, 3.— Common Wombat ( Phascolomys wombat ). be turned to some account. It would be worth while then to endeavour to acclimatise these animals in Europe. They inhabit New Holland and Tasmania. Size that of an ordinary Dog. The Family of Syndactyles. — The Syndactyles (avv, with or together, SaXrvXog, a finger or toe) are thus named because they have the second and third toes of the posterior members joined together under a common skin as far as the nail. The number of toes varies, however, according to the genera. The Syndactyles c 2 20 MAMMALIA. live on the ground or on trees ; the majority are herbivorous or frugivorous ; some feed on insects. They contain four genera : the Kangaroos, the Phalangers, the Tarsipedes, and the Bandacoots. Kangaroos.- — The most prominent characteristic of the Kan- garoos is the relative disproportion of their anterior and posterior members. Whilst the former are short and weak, the latter are singularly long, thick, and strong. Thence the name of Macro- podes (large feet) which certain authors give to the Kangaroos. Fig. 4.— Giant Kangaroo (Macropus major). The tail is long and powerful, and constitutes a sort of fifth member, destined to facilitate in the Kangaroos that mode of progression which is peculiar to them. Fig. 5 very clearly exhibits the structure of the organic framework of an ordinary Kangaroo ; the disproportion which exists between its anterior and posterior members. It shows also the two bones called marsupial. Yery curiously, however, in one^ of the arboreal Kangaroos (. Dendrolagus ur sinus) of Kew Guinea, the anterior limbs are even larger than the posterior; and in I .v ORDER OF MARSUPIALS. 21 another species (D. inustus), inhabiting the same country, the fore and hind limbs are about equal ; while in a third New Guinea species {Macropus Brunii) the fore limbs are unusually large for an animal of this group. According to circumstances, these animals walk or leap ; and their tail plays a great part in either case. In walking they first place their four feet on the ground ; then leaning on those which are in front and on their tail, stretched out like a rigid bar, they raise their hinder parts, bringing up at the same time their two posterior close to their two anterior legs, and moving the latter forward to begin again the same manoeuvre, and so on repeatedly. One can understand that they cannot move very quickly in this way, and so they have recourse to another expedient when they are pursued, or when they want to leap over any obstacle they find in their road. The fore legs then remain unem- ployed ; they hang idly along the body. Squatting on its hind legs, the tail stiff and leaning on the ground like a prop, as it does when the animal is walking, the Kangaroo bounds, as if it were propelled for- wards by a spring, and alights a little farther on, where it begins the same exercise over again, and thus on, indefinitely, till it chooses to stop. The larger species of Kan- garoo clear as much as 10 metres in length* in a single hound, and can jump from 2 to 3 metres in height. Nothing is more curi- . . ... _ 4 _ ous than to see them traversing space with the rapidity of arrows, and, like the giants * The metre = 39-37079 inches. 22 MAMMALIA. we read of in mythology, receiving fresh vigour every time they touch the ground. To complete the portrait of the Giant Kangaroo, we must add that its muzzle is long and slender ; its ears large and straight ; its body thin in front ; very massive, on the contrary, behind ; that it possesses only four toes on the posterior extremities, and that one of these toes is provided with a most murderous nail ; that its coat is composed of silky hair on the head, the members, and the tail, and of woolly hair on the rest of the body ; lastly, that in its diet it is essentially herbivorous. The Kangaroos inhabit Australia and Yan Diemen’s Land; three species only are found in Kew Guinea. They live in little troops, | placed, it is said, under the direction of old males, and keep by preference to woody places. The females have one, or at most two young ones at a litter. Their flesh is excellent ; they are accord- ingly keenly pursued by sportsmen, with Dogs trained especially for the purpose — a breed between the Mastiff and the Greyhound. The tail of these animals is not only an apparatus of propulsion, it serves them also as a defensive arm. Many a time have Kangaroos, pursued by Dogs, been seen to strike them heavy blows with their tails. But that which protects them more efficaciously than this organ against the attacks of their enemies is the powerful nail which terminates the fourth toe of their hind leg. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire states that, to make use of it,, the Kangaroo stands erect against a tree ; leaning on this with its I fore paws, it supports itself with its tail. This tree, or any other obstacle high enough for the purpose, is absolutely necessary to it, since, as it always moves its two hind limbs at the same time, it cannot lean upon one and employ the other in fighting. When a combat takes place between two Kangaroos matters are arranged in a much simpler manner. The adversaries stand up face to face against each other, and tear each other’s bellies to pieces, as a couple of Japanese might do. The males alone fight in this manner amongst themselves. Kangaroos easily accommodate themselves to captivity ; they bear the climate of Europe perfectly, and breed freely in our menageries. It would therefore be very desirable to encourage, by all means in our power, their multiplication in our country, as they have begun to do in England ; especially as, says M. Florent- ORDER OF MARSUPIALS. 23 Prevost rightly, they are remarkable for their great development of those parts of which the meat is most esteemed, such as the loins, the buttocks, and the thighs. Certain species, moreover, have excellent and very choice fur. One might at the same time domesticate them, and let them live freely wild with Hares, Babbits, and other game. Very curiously, these animals can move their large lower incisors so as to snip or cut the herbage in the manner of a pair of shears. About fifty species of Kangaroo are already known, varying Fig. 6. — Kangaroo Kat, or Potoroo. : extremely in size. Some are more than a metre in length : for instance, the Giant Kangaroo (Fig. 4), the Bed Kangaroo, &c. Others, and these are the greatest in number, do not exceed a metre. Lastly, there are some whose size is so small, that they have been called Kangaroo Bats (Fig. 6) ; they are also called Potoroos (Hypsiprymnus) . Indeed, several other divisions have lately been established among the Kangaroos, the most remarkable of which is that of the Tree Kangaroos (Dendrolagas) of Hew Guinea, which has been already referred to.^ These would appear to pass 24 MAMMALIA. their lives chiefly in the mangrove swamps that fringe the shores of parts of that great island, which are under water at high tide, the Tree Kangaroos traversing the branches of the mangroves with facility and speed. Certain fossil animals, of enormous size, have been discovered in the hone-caves, &c., of Australia, which are proved to have been gigantic Marsupials. Among them the Diprotodon Australis was even larger than a Rhinoceros, although akin to the Kangaroos. The Nototherium inerme and N. Mitchelli were equally stupendous marsupial animals which were probably allied to the Koala, or perhaps to the Wombats. The Thylacoleo was at first supposed to have been a huge marsupial carnivore, but opinions are at present divided as to the exact affinity of this great fossil beast, which has become exterminated within comparatively recent times. Phalangers . — In some of their characteristics, in their general form, and in their mode of life, the creatures belonging to the genus Phalanger bear a certain resemblance to Monkeys and Lemurs. They have the great toe of their posterior members opposable to their other toes, and without any nail ; in the majority of these animals the tail is prehensile, as in some of the Monkeys of America. They inhabit forests, climb trees with moderate agility, and feed on fruits, to which they sometimes add birds’ eggs and insects. They are hunted and eaten, although they diffuse an unpleasant odour. Their size is either middling or small. They are divided into three groups : the Koala, the Phalangers properly so called, and the Petaurists. The Koala is characterised by a total absence of tail. Only one species is known. It is often designated by the colonists the native Bear, and is said to feed exclusively on green foliage, though probably also on fruits. All efforts to bring it alive to Europe have failed hitherto (Fig. 7). The true Phalangers have the tail prehensile ; some of them are termed Couscous, which inhabit those islands of the Great Eastern Archipelago that are included in the Australian region. Fig. 8 represents the Sooty Phalanger. Lastly, the Petaurists, or Flying Phalangers, are provided with a parachute membrane between their flanks, and support themselves in the air after the manner of the Flying Squirrels. These species differ much in size. Tarsipedes and Bandacoots . — There is little to be said about OEDEE OF MAESUPI ALS. 25 the Tarsipedes and Bandacoots. They are small marsupial animals, which have, especially the first, much analogy to the Phalangers. The Tarsipede is a pretty animal, hardly so large as a mouse ; ! its muzzle is elongated, and in form like a beak ; and it feeds not only on insects, hut also on the nectar of flowers. The Bandacoots do not* live on trees ; they have strong nails, and dig themselves galleries into which they retire. Insects and roots form the staple of their food. The great toe of their hind Fig. 7. — Koala ( Phascolarctus cinereus). foot is not opposable. Indeed, they are more nearly analogous to the ordinary Insectiyora. The finest species of true Bandacoot (Perameles lagotis) is about the size of a wild Babbit, and bears the name of “native Babbit” amongst the colonists. There are eight or ten others, one of which (P. dor ey anus) inhabits Hew Guinea. Allied to them is a curious little animal of South Australia, known as the Pigfoot ( Chceropus castanotis). Family of Dasyures. — The Dasyures, true Carnivora of the Marsupial order, live but by slaughter and pillage. They have 26 MAMMALIA. three sorts of teeth ; a big toe, which is null or rudimentary on the hind feet ; sharp nails ; the tail long and well covered with hair, but never prehensile. They are more or less nocturnal in their habits. Some attain to a rather large size, and are much dreaded by the 1 Australian colonists, who rank them with certain species of true \ Carnivora. This family contains the genera Thylacin, Sarcophile, , Dasyure properly so called, and Phascogale. The only species of the genus Thylacin (Fig. 9) is the strongest Fig. 8.— Sooty Phalanger ( Phalangista vulpina, Var.). and fiercest of all the Marsupials. It was formerly common in Tasmania, where it is often compared to the Wolf, as it is about the same size, and has the same sanguinary appetites as that animal. Like the Wolf, it frequently falls upon flocks of Sheep, which offer it an easy prey. Yery common along the coast, it lives principally, it is said, on animal remains thrown up by the sea on to the shore ; it also eats crabs. Although smaller than the above, the Sarcophile has the same spirit of destruction, the same taste for flesh : indeed, it subsists ORDER OE MARSUPIALS. 27 I on nothing else. Of this genus there exists only one species, which inhabits Tasmania,* and which the English colonists in : that country call Devil. This animal is of unparalleled ferocity I and stupidity ; it would be in vain to attempt to tame it. It is short and thickset, strong, of about the same size as a Badger, and is a great ravager of poultry-yards ; it even attacks small domestic quadrupeds. In their proportions and in all their habits, the Dasyures properly so called (Fig. 10), remind one of the Fig. 9. — Ihylacin (Thylacinus cynocephalus') . Marten, the Polecat, the Genet, &c. Their coat is soft, thick, and generally spotted. They live on small Mammalia and Birds, which they seize in their nests. Like the Sarcophile, the Dasyures make great havoc in poultry-yards. The Marsupials of the genus Phascogale are all of very * In a fossil state its remains have been found upon the mainland of South Australia, together with those of the Dingo, or semi- wild native Dog. Remains of an extinct Thylacin have likewise been discovered upon the mainland of Australia. —Ed. 28 MAMMALIA, diminutive size, and are rather Insectivora than Carnivora. They live almost entirely on trees, and it is there that they seek food. They vary in size, from that of the Mouse to that of the Brown Bat. The Banded Myrmecobe ( Myrmecobius fcisciatus) is a beautiful little animal, of the size of the Common Squirrel, which is remark- able for having as many as fifty-two teeth in all. It has a hand- some brush tail, and transverse stripes upon its hack, somewhat as in the Thylacin. It inhabits the western portion of Australia. Fig. 10. — Spotted Dasyure ( Dasyurus viverrinus). The Family oe Opossums. — The Opossums were the first- known species of Marsupials. They belong exclusively to the Hew World, where they are very commonly met with, from the more southern of the United States right away to Patagonia. They are climbing animals, in their appearance and diet resem- bling Carnivora, and which in size do not exceed that of our domestic Cat. Many of them are, indeed, much smaller. They have the thumbs opposable and nailless, the tail generally bare and prehensile for its terminal half, or more. Their mouth is ORDER OF MARSUPIALS. 29 provided with fifty teeth, perfectly organized for dismembering a living prey. They sally out at twilight or at night ; during the day they lie hid in the midst of bushes, in hollow trees, or on branches. They feed on small quadrupeds, birds, eggs, insects, molluscs, and even fruits or young vegetable shoots, from which they suck the sap. The females are remarkably prolific ; they have from ten to fifteen young at a litter, and nurse their progeny with that tender solicitude which Florian has so well Fig. 11.— Female of Virginian Opossum ( Didelphis ) with her young. described in his pretty fable of La Sarigue et ses Petits. One of the largest species is the Virginian Opossum (Fig. 11). This animal is particularly fond of the eggs of the wild Turkey, and it seeks for them with avidity. They sometimes make incursions upon poultry- yards, and then the carnage which they perpetrate is something fearful. If the Opossum is surprised by the farmer “ flagrante delicto ” it lies down on the ground, counterfeits death, and takes any amount of beating without wincing ; but as soon 30 MAMMALIA. as the man, thinking that he has killed it, turns his back, the rogue decamps as fast as he can, and regains the forest.* The 1 Opossum is ferocious, and will not allow itself to be tamed. The ; Crab- eating Opossum is a species of about the same size as the 3 preceding. It owes its name to its peculiar diet. Living on the ; sea- shore, it feeds principally on crabs, which it captures very r adroitly. It is found in the Brazils and in Guiana. More than 1 twenty other species are known to naturalists, all of them being peculiar to South America, with the exception of the Virginian 1 Opossum. It is remarkable that there are not any in the Antilles or West Indian Islands. Buffon describes, under the name of the “ Small Otter of Guiana,” a species of Opossum hardly as large as the Brown Bat, and which owes to its hind feet being webbed its power of swimming like the Otter. It is the Yapock ( Chironectes variegatus ) of modern natu- ralists, who have raised it to the dignity of a genus, chiefly on account of this peculiarity. They have also established another genus for a certain number of species, in which the abdominal pouch is replaced by a simple fold of skin, insufficient for protecting the little ones during mammary gestation. The mode of generation is, however, the same in these Marsupials as in all the others ; only when they begin to walk, and any danger threatens them, the young ones, instead of taking refuge in their mother’s pouch, as do the little Kangaroos, &c., mount on her back, and aid themselves in holding on by twining their tails round their mother’s tail. This sight greatly excites the curiosity of those travellers who witness it for the first time.f * Many animals, of various classes, do the same, especially numerous insects. A Fox has been seen to counterfeit death ; and one of the most extraordinary cases of the kind which we happen to have personally witnessed occurred in the instance of a Jackal worried by Dogs, in India. — Ed. f In the Australian colonies the names of familiar animals inhabiting other parts of the world are transferred, and are misapplied to the indigenous Marsupials. Thus the Thylacin is known as the native Wolf, Tiger, and Hyena; the Dasyures are styled native Cats, the Koala is the native Bear, the Wombat the native Badger, the Long-eared Bandacoot is the native Rabbit, and the Phalangers and Petaurists are native Squirrels and Flying Squirrels. Again, the monotrematous Echidna is the native Porcupine, and the Duckbill is the Water Mole. — Ed. ORDER OF CETACEA. The Cetacea are essentially aquatic animals, externally resem- bling Fishes, but belonging really, by tbeir whole structure, to the class of Mammalia. They would indeed be strange Fishes, these creatures, which have mammae with which to suckle their young, which breathe not by gills, but by lungs, and which have a heart provided with two ventricles and two auricles. The Cetacea, then, are Mammalia. Only, instead of being organized for living on land, they are admirably suited for the water ; some of them acquire enormous dimensions, and are the Igiants of the animal kingdom. Their body, more or less spindle-shaped, is terminated behind in a tail, which becomes so broad as to form a fin ; this fin is trans- versal, not vertical as in fishes. The tail is the principal agent in moving these living masses. On the back of most of the Cetacea there exists another fin, which is merely a modification of the skin. The Cetacea have no posterior members. Their anterior members are transformed into natatory paddles, which are of com- paratively little use for locomotion through the water, and of which the principal use, no doubt, is to balance their movements. These anterior members, thus changed into flippers, present, essen- tially, the same structure as does the corresponding member in other Mammalia — the paw of the Dog, the wing of the Bat, &c. Their nostrils open, in general, from the upper part of the head. Owing to this position of the nostrils, which are placed higher than the mouth, these animals can breathe the air without coming too much out of the water. These same organs play still another part, which we will describe presently. The skin of Cetacea is generally quite hairless, which very rarely happens in the case of other Mammalia. Their teeth are mostly conical, uniform, and sometimes numerous. All their tissues, but especially their sub-cutaneous cellular tissue, are impregnated with 32 MAMMALIA. oily fat. Their blood is warm. Their cerebral hemispheres are highly developed, and folded in numerous circumvolutions. Such are the principal characteristic features of the Mammalia which compose the order of Cetacea. The largest of other animals are small when compared with many of the Cetacea ; these colossal creatures, however, swim with more or less rapidity. In consequence of the air contained in their chest, the great quantity of grease with which their tissues are charged, and the vigour of their caudal flukes, they move easily through the waves, looking with voracity for fish, molluscs, and Crustacea, of which they consume an enormous quantity. Whaling for these great Cetacea involves very important nautical expeditions, and furnishes the raw material for the manu- facture of animal oils, elastic fibres, and some ivory. This order is divided into two principal families, which are distinguished by the food they eat, by their teeth, and, above all, by the position of their nostrils. These are the ordinary or blowing Cetacea and the herbivorous Cetacea. These two families comprise a very great number of species, nearly all of which are marine.* Family of Blowing, or Spouting Cetacea. — The blowing Cetacea have their nostrils pierced on the upper surface of the head, and their nasal cavities present a peculiar arrangement, which allows these animals to appear to throw up a column of water above their head. The narrow opening of the blowing Cetacea has received the name of spiracle or blow-hole. Their mammae are placed near the termination of their bodies. Their teeth, when they have any, are pointed ; but in some cases the teeth are replaced by a very peculiar apparatus, of which we shall speak presently. These animals are carnivorous. The family of blowing Cetacea, or ordinary Cetacea, is divided into two tribes, which are easily distinguished by the relative size of the head : the tribe of Whales ( Balcena ), in which the head constitutes in itself one-fourth or even one-third of the total length of the creature, and ’that of the Dolphins, in which the head is in the usual proportion to the body. * Professor Owen has shown that the so-called herbivorous Cetacea are more nearly related by true affinity to the order Pachydermata , and most naturalists now regard them as constituting a peculiar order, which was named Syrenia by the late Professor de Blainville. — Ed. ORDER OF CETACEA. 33 The Cetacea of the tribe of Whales (. Balcenidce ) owe the enor- mous development of the head, not to the brain nor to the skull, which preserve their ordinary proportions, but to the bones of the face, which acquire enormous dimensions. They comprise the genus Whale and the genus Cachalot or Sperm Whale.* Whales are divided into two sections, Whales properly so called, and Rorquals. The Whales properly so called are the Greenland or Right Whale (Balcena mysticetus), another species in the Northern Pacific, and two or more species in the Antarctic Ocean. These animals are the especial object of desire of whalers in both hemispheres. They resist the attacks of man less than the others, and for a long time have yielded very abundant products. What we are going to say on Whales will, then, apply particularly to the Right Whale of the Arctic Regions. The Right Whales are not, as commonly supposed, the largest of marine animals, and indeed of all animals whatever, existent or extinct, for they do not attain such enormous dimensions as some of the Rorquals. According to Scoresby, the Greenland Whale does not exceed seventy feet in length, and its geographical range is con- fined within the limits of the Arctic Circle. But the Right Whales are considerably the most bulky in proportion to their length. Whales are by most people considered as shapeless masses, as if these creatures, which far exceed all others in length and bulk, differed from them also by being wanting in those proportions which we consider as allied to beauty. Let us examine, however, this mass, shapeless in appearance, and let us see if it does not, on the contrary, present a well-arranged whole, f The body of the Right Whale (Fig. 12) has the form of an immense and irregular cylinder, the diameter of which is about a third of its length. The anterior portion of this enormous cylinder is the head, of which the size is a third of the whole animal. Convex above, the head represents very nearly a portion of a sphere. Slightly behind the middle of this sphere rises an * The Cachalots belong properly to the Dolphin series, and the remainder, or true Whales and Rorquals, are toothless, and provided with flakes of baleen (popularly styled whalebone). — Ed. f In all of the Cetacea the skull is unsymmetrical as viewed from above, except, in the Susus ( Platanista , and perhaps Inia) . The single tusk of the Narwhal again exemplifies this irregularity ; and whalers assert that the Cachalots are always blind on one side, of which circumstance they endeavour to take advantage.— Ed. D Fig. 12. — Eight Whale. OEDEE 0 E CETACEA. 35 eminence, in which are pierced the orifices of the two spiracles or blow-holes. The mouth is enormous ; it is prolonged to a point beneath the upper orifices of the blow-holes, and extends almost as far as the base of the flipper. The interior of this mouth is so vast that, in a Whale which did not quite measure twenty-four metres in length, two men could stand upright. This mouth, the interior of which sometimes attains to three metres in breadth and four in height, has no teeth. It has on the upper jaw long, narrow blades, which are called flakes or plates of baleen (whalebone) . Each flake is flattened, and rather resembles, in its curve, the blade of a scythe. It is inflected in the direction of its length, diminishing gradually in height and thickness, and terminating in a point. Its concave side is shaped like the edge of a scythe, and is split into hairs, which form a long and tufted sort of fringe. The whalebone plates are generally black, streaked with colours of a lighter tint. It is not rare to find plates of whale- bone five metres long, and the mouth of the Whale generally contains seven hundred of these plates. What is called in the trade whalebone , is nothing but one of these flakes. The value of the whalebone furnished by each Whale is not less than from <£160 to £200. This gigantic mouth — toothless, but richly provided with organs that replace them — contains an enormous tongue, which is some- times as much eight metres in length and four metres in breadth. This is like a thick mattress — soft, full of grease, and which pro- duces from five to six barrels of oil. The eye of the animal is placed, oddly enough, immediately above the commissure, or point of union,, of the lips, and, conse- quently, very near the shoulder. There is a very great space between the two eyes, so that either eye can only see the objects on its own side of the animal. This organ is, however, set in a kind of small convexity, swhich, rising above the surface of the lips, allows the animal to see with both of its eyes an object at a little distance. But what is strange, is the smallness of this eye, which it is often almost difficult to discover. It is provided with eyelids, like the eyes of other Mammalia ; but these eyelids, unprovided with d 2 36 MAMMALIA. eyelashes, are so much, swollen by the oily grease which occupies their interior, that they are almost incapable of being moved. From the structure of this eye, Lacepede has concluded that it is perfectly adapted for aquatic media. According to this naturalist, Whales have an excellent eye-sight. We must add that this great Cetacean has the senses of smell and hearing acute, so that it is warned from afar of the presence of any odorous bodies, and that it hears at very great distances sounds or even slight noises. The Whale has two anterior limbs, or flippers, of about three metres in length and two metres in breadth. The body is dis- tinguished from the head by being slightly depressed. To the body, properly so called, is applied the base of the tail, which is conical, composed of vigorous muscles, and terminating in a large horizontal fin. This fin, nearly triangular in form, is not less than from six to seven metres in breadth. The tail fin of the Whale constitutes its most powerful instru- ment of natation ; but we must not forget its arms, or flippers, which, on account of their form and dimensions, can also play the part of oars. The skin of the Whale is strong, more than two decimetres in thickness, and is perforated with great pores ; but it is not covered with hair, as is the case with most of the Mammalia. The epidermis which covers it is smooth, glossy, oily, and so bright, that the animal, when exposed to the rays of the sun, shines like polished leather. The Whale is generally black in colour. It is sometimes, how- ever, black tinged with grey. The under part of the head and belly are often white. After this glance at the exterior conformation of this huge Cetacean, let us see what are its habits — its mode of existence. We will speak first of its movements, taking as our guide the interesting work published by Dr. Thiercelin, under the title, Journal of a Whaler * The Whale passes a part of its time at the surface of the water, and the other part in the bosom of the ocean, at a depth from two to three hundred fathoms. When it is preparing to leave those depths, a broad sort of whirlpool shows itself on the surface of the * Journal d’un Baleinier , tome i. pp. 227 — 231. ORDER OE CETACEA. 37 water, and announces its arrival. First one sees a black point emerge : this is the end of its mnzzle. Very soon tbe blow-boles appear, then a part, more or less long, of the surface of its back, till the tail in its turn appears. At the same time that the blow-holes arrive at the surface of the water, a double column of white vapour, more or less thick, rises in the form of a Y to many metres in height. After this blowing, the vents or blow-holes are again emerged ; and during thirty or forty seconds the animal glides along level with the water, in such a manner that the spectator can perceive through the water which covers it the bluish tint of its body. A minute afterwards, the black point reappears, then the blow-holes, and then the blowing or spouting. This alternation of respiration and of progression at the surface of the water goes on for eight or ten minutes. During this time there have been seven or eight jets of liquid. The first is denser than the following ones ; the last, which is as dense, and which lasts as long as the first, announces that the Whale is going to dive again. It does, in fact, rise a little higher out of the water this time than at the preceding blowings, and at last has only its tail out of water : it balances this many times backwards and for- wards, and then descends into the depths of the sea : these are what are called les sondes — the soundings or diggings of the Whale. It remains below for thirty or forty minutes, and sometimes for more : it then returns to the surface and reproduces its irregular and periodical spoutings. It is thus, says M. Thiercelin, that Whales pass their lives ; sometimes on the surface of the water, sometimes below, day and night, in fair weather or in foul weather, at all seasons. For this reason, some people have said that it never sleeps. If the Whale sleeps — which it is certain that it does — these alternate movements are made during its sleep, necessitated by the wants of respiration, and must therefore be automatic, like the respiratory movements. When the Whale breathes, the noise of its breathing can be heard at some hundreds of metres only, if it is in a calm state. But when it is agitated by fear or by anger, the noise of its breathing may be heard at a distance of some kilometres. Dr. Thiercelin compares it to the noise of a strong column of air driven by a very large pair of smiths’ bellows into a great tube 3S MAMMALIA. of copper or brass : it is a very deep and very loud sound, sus- tained during eight or ten seconds. According to the same observer, tbe spout is not formed of any liquid water : it is composed at one and tbe same time of bot air issuing from tbe cbest, of a certain quantity of vapour of water, mixed with this air, and of greasy particles. So, when tbe temperature is rather high, tbe sea calm, and, above all, when tbe sun is near tbe zenith, this blowing, or spouting, is in- visible. When tbe vapour from this blow-spout is disseminated into tbe air, it dissolves — all disappears : there falls nothing but a few little drops of greasy matter. These drops, diffused over tbe surface of tbe water, and joined to tbe exhalations of tbe skin, leave on tbe surface of tbe sea long trails of oily spots, which show tbe way by which tbe Whale has passed. At all events, there is always a certain quantity of water, which has penetrated into tbe aerial canal terminated by tbe blow-bole, and this water (about one or two litres) is mixed in a state of minute subdivision or particles, with tbe respired air, and disseminates itself in tbe atmosphere, like tbe pulmonary moisture. In speaking above of tbe habits of tbe Whale, we only pointed out, with Dr. Tbiercelin, that it was continually “ moving on.” But at what rate does it proceed when it is travelling along P Lacepede affirms that it travels over 660 metres a minute : that it goes quicker than tbe trade winds. If it went twice as fast as it actually does, that it would beat tbe most impetuous winds ; if thirty times, it would traverse space as quickly as sound. Starting from Ibis hypothesis, Lacepede makes another curious calculation. Supposing that twelve hours of repose a day is sufficient for tbe Whale, it would take only forty- seven days in going round tbe world, following tbe equator, and twenty-four days in going from one pole to tbe other along a meridian line. These calculations of tbe illustrious French naturalist are based upon a rather exaggerated estimate of tbe animal’s speed. On tbe other band, certain authors, keeping no doubt within tbe truth, have affirmed that tbe Whale travels ' over only three marine leagues an hour. This is tbe opinion of tbe too ingenious Boitard.* * Le Jardin des Plantes de Paris. The fact is, that the higher rate of speed denotes the pace of the Eorquals, and the lower rate of speed that of the Eight Whales. The former are conspicuously fast-huilt, the latter slow and barge-like. ■ — Ed. OKDEE OF CETACEA. 39 To keep up life in the whole of the immense organization of the Whale, to give it strength for its continual motion, to keep up the breath which gives life to these extraordinary creatures, what quantity of aliment, what peculiar food is necessary P This food is composed of but very small creatures. Lacepede says the Whale feeds chiefly on mollusks and crabs. The number of these animals swallowed by the huge Cetacean compensates for their smallness of size. According to Dr. Thiercelin, in the whaling- grounds, in spring, and still more in summer, the sea is, in places, of a brown colour. This colour is due to small crustaceans, which are somewhat of the shape of Lobsters, but of which the greatest diameter does not exceed two millimetres. These crustaceans form banks of animal matter, which the whalers call boete , and which are ten, fifteen, or twenty leagues in length, by some leagues in breadth, and are three or four metres in thickness. Here is a banquet well served, if not for the size of the prey, at any rate, as far as the mass which constitutes it is concerned ! The Whale wanders up and down these rich banks, and browses, as we may say, in this immense and fertile pasturage. Dr. Thiercelin gives some details as to the manner in which the Whale seizes its food. It lowers its under jaw, spreads its tongue out well on the lower maxillary plate, and advances gently into the midst of this swarm of minute creatures, which it is about to swallow. The mouth, if such an enormous opening can be called a mouth, then presents an anterior aperture, in shape, that of an irregular triangle, the span of which is from six to seven metres. As the Whale advances, the water which it passes through, and which enters into its mouth, escapes laterally by the intervals which separate the whalebone plates, whilst the boete adheres to the hairs of the whalebone plates, and adheres to the palate. When it has thus passed over a space of from forty to fifty metres, it slackens its pace, raises its lower jaw, applies its lips to the whalebone plates, and distends its tongue in such a way that it occupies the whole of its mouth, now closed. The water escapes through the interstices of the whalebone plates ; the point of the tongue gathers together by a rotatory movement all the animalcula caught on the interior hairs, makes them up into an alimentary bolus, and conveys them 40 MAMMALIA. to the entrance of the oesophagus, and thence into the stomach. This done, the Whale then lowers its jaw again, and recommences its easy mode of feeding. It seems difficult to us to believe that the Whale feeds only on these diminutive crustaceans. Why should it reject medusae, mollusks, and even some fishes P But the Whale does not confine itself to moving about, to going from place to place, to travelling, or to feeding, in order to keep up its immense organism. It is necessary also for it to perpetuate its species. At the beginning of spring, then, one sees the males going about by themselves, in search of the females. We soon meet with groups of six or eight Whales, seldom more. When a male and female have paired for the season, the happy couple isolate themselves from the little group, and set out, side by side, on their nuptial tour. They travel, they play, they feed together. On these occasions they make gigantic leaps ; they turn over and over many times, the water is agitated, and boils around them for a very great distance. The males now go in advance to choose the maritime creeks in which the females may give birth to their young. After having inspected these places, they return. The females then come and instal themselves in a well- sheltered bay, over a deep layer of sand. They bring forth their young in the middle of autumn. Scarcely is the young Whale born before it turns over and swims round its mother. She now places herself on her side to suckle it, in such a manner that her teat is on a level with the surface of the water.* After a great many useless attempts, the young one takes the teat between its palate, which is not yet armed with perfect whale-bone plates, and its tongue, which is already much developed, and sucks in its mother’s milk. What a nurse, and what a nursling ! How many quarts of milk does it absorb at each suction P But the young WTiale is soon weaned. At the end of six weeks or two months, its whalebone plates have grown, and it can catch its own food itself in the bosom of its great nurse, the Ocean ! Its mother has for it an ardent and excessive love. She watches over, she guides, she defends it ; to save its life she sacrifices her own. * There is no externally prominent teat or mammella. — Ed. OEDEE OF CETACEA. 41 When a whaler is near a mother and her young one, he begins by attacking the young Whale, which is less strong, less active and less experienced than its mother. But the mother places herself between her nursling and its aggressor. She pushes the little one with her flippers and her body, so as to accelerate its escape. If, in spite of these encouragements, it cannot swim fast enough to escape from the danger, she passes one of her flippers under its belly, she raises it, and, holding it thus firmly fixed against her neck and hack, she escapes with it. Admirable and touching sight, which shows us, in the depths of the ocean, and in the hearts of the most gigantic creatures, the wondrous sentiment of maternity ! Let the tender-hearted reader rejoice ! The Whale-mother sometimes succeeds in carrying off its little one safe and sound. But her vigilance and activity are often baffled by the terrible arms of man. She then shows her pain by the vivacity and the irregularity of her movements. She does not give up the task of saving her dear little wounded one. Forgetful of her own safety, she resolutely seizes hold of it again, at the risk of perishing with it, and she receives a mortal wound rather than abandon her young, which she has uselessly defended. This, however, is the only phase in its life in which the Whale shows any courage and resists its enemies. When it is not a mother it is extremely timid. The male shows great devotion for his female. When she is attacked he makes repeated efforts to save her. He passes and repasses round her ; he tries to set her free from the weapon that has wounded her, and if he does not attack her aggressors, neither does he abandon his companion, and often ends by perishing with her, a victim to his devotion. This giant of the seas has other enemies besides Man ; the most dangerous, the most cruel, after him, is said to be the Narwhal ( Monoclon monoceros). According to Lacepede, these Narwhals, assembling in a troop, advance in line of battle against the Whale, attack it on all sides, bite it, harass it, fatigue it, force it to open its mouth, and then they devour its tongue. Lacepede goes on to .say that the Narwhals, and also the Sword- fish, stab it with their long weapons, and that Sharks, burying in its belly their five rows of pointed and jagged teeth, tear from 42 MAMMALIA. it with, these terrible pincers enormous pieces of integument and muscles. According to the same author, the wounded Whale, haying lost a quantity of blood, worn out with fatigue, can now be attacked by White Bears — voracious and formidable animals, which hunger renders still more daring. When the Whale is dead its immense floating carcass becomes an easy prey to the Dog-fish, the sea-birds, and the White or Polar Bears. W e must further mention, among the enemies of the Whale, cer- tain mollusks and crustaceans, which adhere to its skin and multiply on it as on a rock. Thus fixed on the back of the Whale these little animals become the prey of sea-birds, which come and satisfy their taste or their hunger on the back of the gigantic Cetacean, which is of advantage to it, however, in disembarrassing it of such hosts of parasites. Whales frequent only the cold seas. It has been affirmed that they have never been met with in the torrid zone, and that the equator is for them an impassable barrier. The principal points with which they are met with in the north are Greenland, Spitsbergen, Davis’s Straits, Behring’s Straits, the Sea of Okhotsk, Japan, the north-west coast of America, &c. In the southern hemisphere one may say that they are found in all latitudes, from the thirty-fourth or thirty-fifth degree to the polar circle. We will mention as the principal points the western and southern coasts of Africa, the Islands of Tristan d’Acunha, the Cape of Good Hope, the islands Mauritius, Madagascar, St. Paul, Amsterdam ; Australia, Hew Zealand, Chili, Cape Horn, the Falk- land Islands, the coast of Brazil, &c.* It is impossible, however, to point out exactly the principal points where, at any given time, Whales are sure to be found. For reasons which are unknown, or only guessed at, it emigrates suddenly from one of the maritime regions where it had been up to that time. They call by the name of fishing -grounds those latitudes in which, at certain periods of the year, the Whale is to be met with in greater or less numbers. These periods are called the fishing seasons. They are determined by the temperature and by the presence of the Whale’s food, of that boete which we spoke about before. * The geographical range of the Borquals is here confounded with that of the Bight Whales. — Ed. OEDEE OF CETACEA. 43 In a given latitude a distinction is made, according to the habits of the Whale, between the open- sea season, that is to say the season in which the Whale keeps at twenty, thirty, or forty leagues from land, and the bay season, a period at which the Whale comes near the land, and confines itself to places where the water is shallow, sheltered from the wind, in a bay, or a creek, near a coast. The open-sea season is in the spring and summer, the bay season in the autumn and winter. Ho Cetacea are to be found on the fishing- grounds out of those two seasons. Though always obedient to the seasons, these animals never- theless leave their habitual places of abode, or cease to return to them, when they have been pursued there during many years by numerous whalers ; or else when, for some mysterious reason, their food has become less abundant there. It is not known, however, whither they go when they leave those lati- tudes. Before describing the Whale fishery, as it is inappropriately styled, and making known the weapons and processes at present made use of in it, we will glance at the history of this branch of marine industry. Who can tell now where the first Whale was killed P One can only make conjectures on this point. The temperature of the medium in which the Whale lives has a great influence over the rapidity of its movements — over its sensibility. In the seas of the extreme north its movements are slow ; it feels pain very little, it makes but a poor defence of itself, and flees before its pursuers but slowly.* It was then, without doubt, in these regions that the courageous idea of attacking this colossus of the sea was first conceived. The inhabitants of the northern countries were the more incited to this enterprise as they saw in these monstrous creatures an immense reservoir of oil, a matter of which they stood so much in need ; a provision of meat which, when frozen, kept through the whole winter ; bones suitable for the framework of their dwelling-places, and diverse other useful products, furnished by the intestines and the tendons of this gigantic object of pursuit. Most extravagant tales have been told about the primitive hunting of the Whale. It is said that when the savages of Florida perceived a Whale, one of them got on its back, drove a plug into * Here, again, the Whales and Eorquals are confounded. — Ed. 44 MAMMALIA. one of its blow-holes, followed it to the bottom of tbe sea, came up again with it to tbe surface, closed tbe other blow-bole with a second plug, and so caused it to die of suffocation. This is simply impossible. Tbe ancient Esquimaux employed in attacking tbe Whale a very ingenious system, which they still put in practice at tbe present day. They surround tbe Whale they want to take in little canoes. Those who man these canoes, throw at it arrows or harpoons, attached to hollow balls of large dimensions, and which are made of seal- skin, of the intestines of Cetacea, &c. When the animal wishes to plunge, it cannot manage it, for these balls buoy it up, and it is obliged to remain near the surface of the water. It advances very gently in this position, so that it cannot escape from the blows of its enemies, who thus slowly, but surely, kill it. We now arrive at the period when whaling was practised, not by the savage inhabitants of Northern Europe and America, but by civilised people. It is in a book which dates back as far as the year 875, Miracles de Saint Waast, that we find the first mention made of the syste- matic pursuit of Whales. The people of Biscay were those who were engaged in it. Nearly about the same time, Otherus, a German navigator, visited the coasts of Norway, to the North Cape, and pushed on as far as the entrance into the White Sea. He met in these northern seas quantities of fishermen, and saw more than two hundred Whales taken in two days. From the eleventh to the twelfth century this branch of in- dustry took root in Flanders and in Normandy, and the principal whaling ships were fitted up in the ports of these countries. The author of a Life of St. Arnould , Bishop of Soissons, describes the form of the harpoons, the way in which they were used, and enumerates the tithes paid by the whalers to the ecclesiastics of that canton. In the twelfth century, the Norwegian sailors carried on the pursuit of Whales with great activity. In the fourteenth century, the sailors of Biscay began to under- take regular expeditions to the northern seas ; their ships were fitted out in the different harbours along our (French) sea-shore. Their expeditions were always crowned with success, for they came back each year with a full cargo. It was then that the ORDER OF CETACEA. 45 classic process of hunting was established and regulated, of which we shall soon have to treat. From the year 1372 whalers from Biscay arrived at the great bank of Newfoundland, whence they pushed on as far as the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coasts of Labrador. In the fourteenth century, whaling vessels were fitted out at Bordeaux for the Arctic Seas, which went up as far as Greenland, and even to Spitzbergen. The success of the people of Biscay excited the jealousy and the cupidity of other nations. As they were not protected by the national flag, they were interfered with, and were at last excluded from the whaling- grounds, either by force or by heavy contributions being levied on them; and so, from the commencement of the seventeenth century, their trade began to decline. It was defini- tively lost for them and for France, when, in 1636, the Spaniards seized upon fourteen large ships manned by Biscayans, which had just returned from Greenland, with rich cargoes of blubber and whalebone. The Biscayan whalers now decided to play only a secondary part. They found themselves reduced to act as guides to their powerful rivals ; they taught the art of whaling to the Dutch, and even to the English. With the Dutch the pursuit and capture of Whales became rapidly of very great importance. Supported by rich companies, this new field of enterprise became a source of great prosperity for Holland, until the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury. But at this period it was paralysed by the maritime war ; and after the peace it was never again started on the same scale. Whilst the whaling was giving to the Dutch such splendid results, it did not prosper in the hands of English outfitters and sailors. But this persevering and active nation redoubled its efforts, so as to ensure success. In 1732 England granted rich prizes to all whaling ships, and even went so far as to double those prizes in 1749. From that time forwards this branch of maritime industry increased rapidly in England. Pursued in their natural latitudes by a merciless war, the Whales gradually took their departure, going more and still farther north. Till towards the fifteenth century, the whaling went on along the French coasts of the ocean, that is to say, in the Gulf of Gascony.* It was, as we have said, the privilege of the * There is no reason to suppose that the Greenland Right Whale ever inhabited 46 MAMMALIA. Biscayans. But from the sixteenth, century, the Whales, having become more timid, took refuge in the seas of Greenland and of Spitzbergen. They were then very numerous near the coasts and creeks or coves. The whalers very quickly got full cargoes when they remained near the land. Troops of Whales swam with con- fidence along the coasts and bays in the immediate vicinity of Greenland and Spitzbergen. They did not flee from the ships, and surrendered themselves without offering any defence to the avidity of the whalers. The Dutch had even built, in the island of Amsterdam, the village of Smeerenbourg (village of grease) . They here established warehouses and supplies of different sorts of goods. In the wake of their fleets of whaling ships they sent out other vessels, laden with wine, brandy, tobacco, and eatables. In these establishments they melted down the fat of the Whales they had brought there dead, and then brought the oil to Europe. But very soon the Whales became timid and altogether shy. They emigrated gradually and slowly, as if they quitted with regret the coasts and the bays where they were born, where, free and happy, they had lived and multiplied. They gained the regions of moving ice, whither the whalers soon pursued them. They then went and hid themselves under the fixed ice ; and, as their principal place of refuge, they chose the immense crust of ice, which the Dutch have named West-ys (the western ice). The whalers invaded this motionless ice. Pushing their boats on to the very edge of it, they looked out for the moment when the Whales were forced to quit this protecting vault, to come and breathe above the water. Thus it was that the whalers were obliged to abandon the waters of Spitzbergen, to go towards the great bank of ice which bounds, on the north-west, the Sea of Greenland. It is principally in these latitudes, that is to say, towards 78° or 81° north latitude, or in Davis’s Straits, near the Isle of Disco, that whaling has been pursued with the greatest activity since the middle of the seventeenth century. But these last-named seas have been deserted in their turn, so that the English whalers are obliged now to pass over the ice in Baffin’s Bay, as far as the the northern temperate zone, at least under present conditions of temperature. Rorquals were formerly much more common in these latitudes; hut a Balcena Biscayensis is still believed in by some naturalists. — Ed. ORDER OE CETACEA. 47 straits of Lancaster, and even as far as Melville Bay. If it be true that there exists round the North Pole a sea free of ice during the summer season, as the hardy pioneers who are starting at this very moment to discover this Arctic Sea assert, it is probable that very numerous Whales will be found which have taken refuge in those latitudes as yet unknown to man. It is not only towards the arctic seas that the whalers have pushed their courageous expeditions. The antarctic regions have been equally explored. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, whalers from Massachusets (America) began to take the direction of the South Pole. They sailed along by Cape Yerd, the south-west coast of Africa, Brazil, and Paraguay, to the Falk- land Isles. Since then the English have also gone whaling in the south, and the ships of these two nations have ploughed up, not only the southern parts of the Atlantic Ocean, but the whole extent of the Great Ocean. The Americans have now more than 300 whaling ships, all of which bring in large profits. Some, but a very few, French ships, have explored the same latitudes. The west coast of Africa, the Bay of Lagos, the mouth of La Plata, the coasts of Patagonia, New Holland, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Sandwich Islands are the principal regions frequented by the whalers of the two worlds. As for the ancient hunting-grounds, we have already said that they are unstocked. The appearance of a Whale in the Gulf of Gascony is now an unheard-of event A The coast of Greenland, which was an excellent station, is now deserted. Baffin’s Bay has been exhausted by the English ; and Davis’s Straits, which was visited at the beginning of our century by more than a hundred whaling ships, belonging to different nations, counts only six or seven, which are not even sure of bringing home cargoes. We must not omit to mention here a remark made by M. Paul Gervais. This naturalist is disposed to think that the Whales which were formerly pursued so near to our shores (the French shores), were rather Borquals than Bight Whales. The chro- niclers of the middle ages, who are defective in their descriptions of that precision which is so desirable, may even have con- founded under the name of Whales, other large Cetaceans which * Rorquals of at least three species are still occasionally cast ashore on the French and British coasts. — Ed. 48 MAMMALIA. * differ from the Right Whale more than do the Rorquals, and which also yield great quantities of oil. It is probably thus that we must explain, according to M. Gervais, the assertions borrowed from the chroniclers of that period, that they consumed Whale oil in the monasteries on the French coast; that the churches of St. Bertin and of St. Omer levied a contribution on each Whale ; that the Abbey of Caen laid a tithe on all the Whales caught at Dives ; and the Church of Coutances on all the whale-boats brought into Merri. After this historical account, we will describe the Whale fishery — a so-called fishery, so different from all others ; for an immense gain is at stake and an immense risk is run. W e will begin by describing the process the most anciently employed, and, as we may call it, Fig. 13.— Harpooning tlie Wliale. the classical process ; we will then point out a new method which appears perfectly to answer the exigencies of the present day. The whaling ships which belong to France, to England, to the United States, &c., are each of them always accompanied by five or six boats. The boats are generally four-oared, and carry besides the four rowers, a harpooner and an officer. When they have arrived in those latitudes where they hope to find Whales, a man is posted on the look-out on some high part of the ship, from which he can see to a long distance. The moment he perceives a Whale, he gives the signal agreed upon beforehand, and the boats are launched. In the bows of each of them stands the harpooner ; at the stern is the officer. Both, with fixed eye ORDER OF CETACEA. 49 and outstretched neck, watch for the approach of the gigantic quarry. This is indicated by an eddy, a submarine vibration, and a roaring analogous to the suppressed noise of distant thunder. The animal has at last shown the extremity of his black muzzle above the water. We know already, from what Dr. Thiercelin has told us, by what alternations of blowings and soundings the creature makes its evolutions in the liquid medium. The whaler notices in what manner the Whale inclined its tail to guess the direction which it has taken, and he notes the presence of boete on the surface and at the bottom of the sea, so as to ascertain whether its soundings will be long or short, and then changes his direction according to the requirements of the moment. It is the exact knowledge of these details which makes the expert whaler. So the manoeuvres of the boat vary considerably, according to cir- cumstances. It is easy enough to approach to within fifteen or twenty fathoms of the Whale. But the difficulty is to arrive sufficiently near it to allow of a successful attack being made upon it ; that is to say, to within two or three fathoms’ distance. Blows from the tail and the flippers are now to be feared. When the boat is sufficiently near, the harpooner prepares to cast the harpoon at the Whale. This is the place to say something about the instrument. It is composed of two parts : the iron and the handle. The iron is a metal tube, funnel-shaped at one end and ter- minated at the other in a sort of reversed Y. The exterior edges of this Y are sharp, whilst the interior edges are thick and straight, in such a manner that when once in the flesh, the iron, retained there by the two points, cannot be torn out. The edges can also be barbed. This dart is more than a metre in length. It is fixed into a handle, which is pierced with a hole, in which is fixed a cord of about four hundred metres long. The harpooner stands, his thigh fitting into a hollow of the boat, holding his weapon with both hands. When the officer con- siders that the favourable moment has arrived, he cries out, “ Strike !” We will here let Dr. Thiercelin, an historian of, and an actor in, these exciting combats, speak for himself : — “ The harpoon vibrates,” says he, “ traverses space, penetrates into the blubber, plunges and fixes itself into the fleshy and tendinous or sinewy parts. And here I ought to remark how few harpoons E 50 MAMMALIA. penetrate to tlie desired depth : out of five or six Whales struck by the harpoon, it often happens that one only is made well fast. When, from a false calculation as to the distance, awkwardness, or fear, the harpooner has thrown his weapon badly, the Whale promptly frees itself from the instrument which has wounded it, by a sharp contraction of its muscles. As soon as it is free, the animal starts off, and it is then useless to attempt to follow it ; it is lost sight of after fifteen or twenty minutes ; in most cases its companions accompany it, and are for the future more difficult to approach than they were formerly. If, on the contrary,, it is made fast to the boat, it quivers and seems to shrink under the blow ; excited by the pain, it prepares to make its escape ; hindered in doing this by the dart it carries in its flesh, it at first hesitates, so that any ordinarily skilful harpooner is able to send a second harpoon into it ; at any rate in a few minutes it dives. The officer then changes his place, and proceeds to take his post of action. Up to this time he has directed the manoeuvres ; now he is going to act himself ; to kill the animal is his right and: his duty. More than two hundred fathoms of the line are already in the sea, and the animal is still diving. The force of plunging is so great, that if there were anything in the way of the rope it would make the boat capsize. The line has been known, as it was unrolling itself, to catch a man by an arm, a leg, or even by the body,, and drag him down into the sea, from which he did not rise again till the part caught hold of had been cut through by the friction. It is difficult to form an idea of the coolness required in these preliminary manoeuvres : it is necessary to have at the same time great resolution, extreme promptitude, and the utmost prudence. If the first opportunity is missed, all chance may disappear, and the fruit of long labour is lost. To judge from the uneasy air of certain officers, one would say that they were afraid, so anxiously do they look all round, and watch every little thing ; but by the direction of the line, they know whether the Fig. 14.— Harpoon. MAMMALIA. 51 Whale is diving perpendicularly down, swimming along under the water, or mounting to the surface, and they manoeuvre accordingly. It is now above all that the crew must blindly obey its officer ; it must be nothing but a rowing and', back- watering machine, for all of their lives depend on this. In these solemn moments fear takes possession of some' sailors. As soon as the Whale is made fast, they become of.' a livid pale- ness ; they lose their heads ; they see nothing, hear nothing, and can no longer obey a single command. It is very remarkable, that old sailors are more exposed than young ones to this excessive panic. When men are not soon cured of this unfortunate impres- sionability, they cease to make part of the crew of the whale-boat, where their presence could only be demoralising to the others. Harpooners, too, until then intrepid, have been known to become all of a sudden, and without any apparent cause, incapable of throw- ing a harpoon with force and accuracy. The simple fact of the Whale being close at hand strikes them with terror ; their arms, paralyzed by fear, suffer the weapon to fall flat and harmless on the Cetacean, which, warned by this simple touch, escapes as fast as possible. The true whaler knows no fear : he braves death, but is prudent. When the animal rises from its first dive, he draws the line taut, approaches the beast cautiously, not precipitately, but rather slowly. He knows that he must avoid’ the tail and the flippers ; he knows that the head is invulnerable, that a- wound in the abdomen is never immediately mortal, and that he ought to be quick and to get a fair aim so as to strike some vital part. What difficulties, and how long it sometimes is before the first lance can be cast ! And yet it is not one that is sufficient to cause the Whale’s death, but ten, twenty, and even more than that ; and even then they must have been planted in the proper parts of its body, or they will not produce the required effect. If a mortal wound is not inflicted in the first quarter of an hour, the Whale recovers from its alarm, regains its senses, and takes to flight, dragging its enemy after it : then there are the alternations of prolonged divings and rapid runnings in or towards the wind. The whale-boat, carried away with the swiftness of an arrow,, rushes through the waves, and seems to leave on each side of it a wall of vapour. In vain do two or three of the boats, throwing their painters to the one which is made fast to the Whale, come and get themselves towed e 2 52 MAMMALIA. and increase the weight the Whale has to drag along with it r 'he speed of the animal is not perceptibly diminished. “ This phase of the combat necessitates a fresh device, more difficult and more dangerous to execute than those which preceded it. Armed with a mattock or sharp spade, the thrower waits till the Whale has raised its tail some metres out of the water, and hauling himself just under this formidable weapon, he throws his mattock on a level with the last caudal vertebra. If he divides the artery and the tendons, the blood gushes out in floods, and the pace slackens to a great extent. Owing also to this attack in the rear, the Whale often changes its route ; the boat is now on the side instead of being behind, and the harpoon can again be used. It would be impossible for me to describe all the devices, all the false attacks, all the escapes, .all the desperate attacks of man upon this living mass, which, with one blow of its tail-flukes, could smash to atoms all the boats belonging to a ship. Fortunately the animal does not know how formidable it really is ; it is only when it tries to escape that it causes disasters. When it is possible to do so, another boat makes itself fast to -the Whale, so as to make its chance of escape still less, -.and thus to come to the final result sooner. At each blow the animal makes hoarse -and metallic roarings, which can be heard for a distance of miles ; the blow, or what it spouts forth, is white, thick, and rises to a great height, until, after a lucky hit has been made, two columns of blood escape from the spiracles or blow-holes, rise into the air, and in their fall redden the sea for a great way round ; from this moment the Whale is considered as good as dead. And in fact, after some additional fresh wounds, the spouts do not rise to such a height, the blood is thicker, the divings are less prolonged, the strength of the creature is becoming exhausted, and the fishermen cease to contend with it. Sometimes death comes immediately after the appearance of blood in the spout, but life is generally prolonged for one or two hours more : this circumstance is regarded as favourable, inasmuch as the great loss of blood leaves the body specifically lighter, and therefore better able to float. However, the animal may still be lost ; the distance, the night, or the state of the sea does not allow of the vessel following it. On the approach of its death the poor Whale collects all its remaining strength, and in a disorderly flight, without an aim, without .any consciousness ORDER OF CETACEA. o3 of danger, without hope of saving its life, it swims along, over- turning everything which it meets with on its way. It sees nothing, throws itself at random on the boats, on a rock, or on the shore. “Very soon a general shiver runs through its whole body; its convulsions make the sea froth and boil. At last it raises its head for the last time ; for the last time it looks for the light, and dies. Having now become an inert body, it turns over and floats with its back downward, the belly on the surface of the water, the head hanging a little down under water,. on account of the different weight of the different parts. Its death sometimes takes place during a dive ; the carcass then comes to the surface, and floats without our being able to observe the phenomena which accompany its death-struggle.”* Hr. Thiercelin, an eye-witness, has just related to us the terrible vicissitudes in this bloody struggle between Man and the Whale. You have, no doubt, reader, contemplated this curious picture with interest ; and have felt much admiration for the courage of the man, and ai feeling of pity for the terrors and the pain suffered by his gigantic victim. Excited by the struggle, the crew of the whaling ship is, however, very far from being ac- cessible to such tender-hearted feelings as these : it abandons itself to transports of joy caused by its victory. But this triumphant joy gives place sometimes to profound con- sternation. The Whale is dead, it floats on the water, and belongs to the crew ; when lo ! all of a sudden it begins sinking gently, head- foremost, and disappears. What trouble has been taken, what dangers run, all to no jmrpose. The Whale has gone to the bottom ! Just as it is sinking, numerous air-bubbles come to the surface of the water, burst, and produce a sort of ebullition, which lasts about a minute. This accident may happen under several different circumstances. It has been observed, however, that it was more frequent — 1st, when the Whale is relatively thin ; 2nd, when it is dead without having spouted blood, or, as it is called, being suffocated ( etouffee ) ; 3rd, when it has had its abdomen cut up with wounds from the harpoon. If, through any circumstance, in consequence of a wound, for example, the water penetrates into its bronchial tubes, it drives the air out of them, renders the whole body heavier, and the animal sinks to the bottom quicker and quicker * Journal d'un Baleinier , tome i. 54 MAMMALIA. in -proportion as the air is driven out of the bronchial tubes and is replaced by water. We have just described the process, which we call classical, em- ployed in capturing the Whale. This process is insufficient now, because the Whales have become timid, and knowing their danger, flee before their pursuers, at the moment when the latter flatter themselves that they are about to catch them. A French gun-maker, M. Devisme, invented for whaling an explosive projectile. The balle fouclroyante or a percussion of ■ M. Devisme has two little wings, which, opening at the moment of the explosion in the body of the animal, form a sort of harpoon. The balle fouclroyante pro- posed by M. Devisme for hunting dangerous animals, which should be killed at the first shot, such as Lions, Tigers, or Elephants, and which he considers equally suited for attacking great spouting Whales, is nothing but a kind of howitzer shell, reduced to dimensions small - enough to allow of its -being fired from an ordinary rifled carbine. This ball contains a certain quantity of powder, which can be ignited by the percussion- of a fulminating capsule contained in its interior. This balle foudroyante (Fig. 15) is cylindrical, and eight centi- metres in length ; it is formed of a copper tube, covered at its base with a coating of lead for about the length of two centi- metres. This plate of lead forces itself,’ at the moment the gun is fired, into the grooves of the barrel of the carbine, the calibre of which is the same - as that of the Wncennes carbine. The upper part of this ball is a copper cone, screwing on to the tube. This cone is armed -with a piston, *, at the lower extremity of which is placed an ordinary cap, which rests upon a steel cross-piece. When the projectile has hit the object shot at, this steel cross-piece crushes the fulminating capsule, and the six grains of powder contained in the ball ignite and send the whole projectile flying about in death-bearing splinters. Of ail the means tried until now to strike and kill the Whale from a distance, the only one which has, as yet at least, been actually employed is -an American projectile, which has received the name of bomb-lance. This engine (Fig. 16) is composed of a cast-iron tube, of from thirty to forty centimetres in length by two to three in diameter. This tube is filled with about a hundred grains of gunpowder. It terminates above in a triangular pyramid, with ORDER OF CETACEA. 55 hollow surfaces, haying the angle and points very acute ; the bottom of this tube is joined, by means of a screw, to a narrower screw containing a match. This projectile can he fired with the charge of a heavy gun, which, when well shouldered, carries as far as fifteen, twenty, and even thirty fathoms. When the gun has been fired, the bomb which forms the projectile penetrates into the fleshy parts of the animal with the match, which was lighted by the explosion that took place when the gun went off. A few seconds later a dull hollow sound is heard — it is the bomb bursting Fig. 15.— Devisme’s Balle Foudroyante. inside the animal. The Whale makes a violent somersault, and if the explosion has taken place in the lung, it may die almost instantaneously. The employment of the bomb-lance is combined equally with that of the harpoon. When a Whale has been seized and made fast by the harpoon thrown by the hand, they replace the lance for killing the animal by the explosible projectile. Dr. Thiercelin rendered the bomb-lance still more murderous, by adding to it a very powerful poison — strychnine mixed with curare. After numerous experiments Dr. Thiercelin came to the conclu- ORDER OE CETACEA. 57 sion that a mixture composed of a yer y soluble salt of strychnin© and a twentieth part of curare is sufficient to put to death one of these animals, when it is administered in doses of half a milli- gramme for every kilogramme of the animal’s weight. He then made cartouches, thirty grains in weight, containing this poisonous mixture. One of these cartouches alone is enough to kill a Whale of 60,000 kill ©grammes in weight ; two would he more than sufficient for the largest Whales of the North Pole, the weight of which perhaps exceeds 100,000 kilogrammes.5 Hr. Thiercelin then enclosed each cartouche in the projectile, called a ball-harpoon, better known in America under the name of bomb-lance, and which we have just described. This projectile, tired into the sides of the animal, bursts and projects the poisonous mixture into it. In his first journey to Newfoundland Hr. Thiercelin caused his poisonous bombs to be fired at ten Whales of different sizes. The result was very satisfactory. The ten Whales died in a space of time varying from four to eighteen minutes. Six of these furnished them with their oil and whalebone. Their flesh was not in the least impregnated with the poisonous matter, for their carcasses were handled by men who had excoriations, and even recent wounds, on their hands, without a single one having suffered the least harm. Four of thes© Cetacea, as they belonged to species of which the whalers do not generally take notice, were lost from circumstances independent of the new method. The results of this campaign set at rest all doubts as to the future in store for Hr. Thiercelin’s idea. Henceforth there will be no more fear, when a Whale is attacked, of seeing it escape, pierced all over with many blows. Every Whale hit will be, as it were, already killed. Its capture will be almost certain. There is, then, the germ of a revolution in whaling. This system of attack has the advantage of paralyzing in a few instants the movements of the animal. Six or eight minutes after the wound has been inflicted, the fisher can approach the Whale and strike it with his lance to make it bleed, rendering it thus lighter, and preventing it from sinking to the bottom. We have not the least doubt of the terrible efficacy of Hr. Thiercelin’s system. We even assert that we now fear, that, at some not very distant period, the very extraordinary and innocent 58 MAMMALIA. races of these marine Mammalia will be totally destroyed by this mode of attack. To complete our account of the whaling procedure we must say something about the cutting up of the .animal, and of the melting down of the blubber into oil. When the Whale is dead it is made fast alongside of the ship, belly upwards, its tail forwards and its nose level with the stern of the vessel. It is not without great difficulty that this enormous mass, which just now traversed the sea with such facility, can be towed so as to be landed on the shore. In olden times the fishermen of the north of Europe used to cut up the Whale by going upon its carcass, provided with boots furnished with cramp-irons. They thus stripped off bands of blubber along the whole length of the animal, from head to tail. But this way of cutting up the Whale was long, difficult, and even dangerous. The whalers in the Southern Ocean have a better way of proceeding : this consists in cutting out, ;along the whole length of the animal’s body, a broad continuous band shaped like a screw, beginning at the head and only finishing at the tail, very nearly in the same way in which children proceed when they are taking off the peel of an orange. Dr. Thiercelin relates in great detail the operation of cutting up, upon which we are unable to dwell longer here. Suffice it to say that they sap, by means of sharp spades, one side of the under lip>, and that they take away this part ; that they then detach the tongue, which weighs many thousands of kilogrammes ; then the other half of the lip; next the upper jaw, with its whalebone plates, which jare becoming more and more sought after in commerce every day. Then they Begin to cut a thick band of grease and skin, which they keep on detaching, hawling up on board, and stowing away. It is thus that they unwind, as we may say, the Whale, making its body turn round on itself. In the background of Fig. 17 (page 56) which represents the pursuit of the Whale, we see the operation .of cutting up in pieces going on on board of another ship. In the southern seas the carcass is no sooner cast off and set adrift from the ship than it is literally covered with birds, par- ticularly Petrels and Albatrosses. The Sharks come also and take ORDEB OF CETACEA. 59 their share of their feast. The hones, rolled about and heaped up in the creeks, are then carried away by the ships. Before being stored in the hold of the ship as cargo to be taken home, the parts stripped off the Whale have to undergo various preparations. Each piece of blubber is divided, by a machine, into slices of one centimetre in thickness ; then they proceed to the melting down, which has for its object to separate the oil from this enormous greasy rind. The operation of melting is effected on the deck of the ship by means of a furnace, of which the fire is kept up with scratchings, that is to say, the fragments of cellular tissue which float on the surface of the oil when the blubber is melted. An ordinary Whale yields a quantity of these, sufficient not only for melting down its own blubber, .but also sufficient for melting down a part of the blubber of another Whale. The base of the furnace does not rest directly on the deck ; it is separated from it by a free space, in which cold water is always circulating, which reduces the adjacent parts of the deck of the ship to a temperature below 100°. Without this .precaution, jthere would be a constant risk of fire. The quantity of oil supplied by a single Bight Whale may be as much as from twenty-five to thirty hectolitres. The operations, of which we have given a rapid sketch, make a whale- ship very unsavoury quarters. To give an idea of it, we will again borrow a few lines from the work of Dr. Thiercelin — “ I remember,” says the author, “ one evening in December, 1838, I was on board the Ville-de- Bordeaux. We had killed four Whales that day. We had been able to Turn one of our four victims over ; the second lay along the ship to starboard ; and the two others were riding on the waves, fastened to the ship by cables. The deck, running with oil, was encumbered with empty barrels, with whalebone, and flippers partly stripped of their fat. The blubber-room was crammed full, and ttwo smoky lamps showed two or three novices, all covered with grease, employed in cutting up the small pieces. What a charnel-house is this room ! ”* The Borquals have the head smaller than in the Bight Whales, measuring about one-fourth of the entire length of the animal, a * Journal d’un Baleinier, tome i. 60 MAMMALIA. tin more or less large upon the back, and longitudinal wrinkles on the lower part of the body. Fig. 18 represents a species of Rorqual, whose skin, perfectly preserved under a roof, and protected by railings, occupies a largo yard in the Jar din des Plantes at Paris. Whales properly so called have the head very large, about one- third of the entire length of the animal, and considerably arched, the back unprovided with a fin, and the lower parts of the body smooth or unwrinkled. Dr. Gray, of the British Museum, distinguishes four species of Right Whales — viz. the Northern Whale ( Balcena mysticetus) , the Fig. 18.— Rorqual {Physalus antiquorum) . Western Australian Whale (R marginata ), the Cape Whale (B. Australis ), and the Japanese Whale (B. Japonica). He also divides the Rorqual series — which have a prominent and conspicuous fin upon the back, the plates, of baleen or whalebone short and broad, and the belly longitudinally plaited — -into Megaptera, with the flippers elongated and dorsal fin low ; Balcenoptera , with flippers of moderate length, the dorsal fin falcate, and situate two -thirds of the length of the animal backwards, vertebrae 46 or 48 ; and Physalus , with flippers of moderate size, the dorsal fin falcate, and situate further backwards, or at three-fourths of the entire length of the animal, the vertebrae numbering from 54 to 64. Even ORDER OF CETACEA. 61 further divisions have since been proposed, as additional species have been distinguished ; for it now appears that there are really very many kinds of these enormous Cetaceans, which are only beginning to be understood by naturalists who make an especial study of them. Some of the Rorquals are the longest of all known animals, attaining to more than a hundred feet in length, or, in other words, to about half the length of the London Monument. One of the most gigantic species (. Balcenoptera Indica ) inhabits the Indian Ocean, and there is a very early notice of this animal as observed at the northern extremity of the Arabian Sea, in the narrative of the famous voyage of Nearchus, the commander of Alexander’s fleet, which sailed from the Indus to the Persian Gulf, 327 b.c. Not only did the ancient navigator encounter a troop of these huge animals, but it would appear that they were at that time not unfrequently stranded on the coast of Mekran, where the Icthyophagi of that woodless region used their bones for building purposes. “ The generality of the people (as we are told by Arrian) live in cabins, small and stifling : the better sort only have houses constructed with the bones of Whales ; for Whales are frequently thrown up on the coast, and when the flesh is rotted off, they take the bones, making planks and doors of such as are fiat, and beams or rafters of the ribs or jaw-bones ; and many of these monsters are found fifty yards (?) in length. Strabo confirms this report of Arrian ; and adds, that the vertebrae or socket-bones of the back are formed into mortars, in which they pound their fish, and mix it up into a paste, with the addition of a little meal.”* In more recent times the bones of Whales have been used for building purposes on the shores of the Polar Sea, at the north- eastern extremity of Siberia. Thus Admiral Yon Wrangell re- marks that — “ At many places along this coast we saw the bones of Whales stuck upright in the ground ; our interpreter, and sub- sequently the Tschuktschi whom we met, said that they were the remains of the former dwellings of a stationary tribe. They appeared to have been of a better and more solid kind than are now used, and to have been partly sunk in the ground.” And again : — “ There are traditions which relate that two centuries ago the Onkilon occupied the whole of the coast from Cape * Vincent’s Voyage of Near chus, p. 267. 62 MAMMALIA. Schelogskoi to Behring’s Straits ; and it is true that there are everywhere along this tract the remains of huts constructed of earth and Whale bones, and quite different from the present dwell- ings of the Tschuktschi.” * But to return to the account given by Arrian of the great Indian Rorqual. He informs us that when, in the morning, Hearchus was off Kyiza or Guttar, his people were surprised by observing the sea thrown up to a great height in the air, as if it were carried up by a whirlwind. The people were alarmed, and inquired of their pilot what might he the cause of the pheno- menon ; he informed them that it proceeded from the blowing of the Whale, and that it was the practice of the creature as he sported in the sea. His report by no means quieted their alarm ; they stopped rowing from astonishment, and the oars fell from their hands. Hearchus encouraged them, and recalled them to their duty, ordering the heads of the vessels to he pointed at the several creatures as they approached, and to attack them as they would the vessels of an enemy in battle : the fleet immediately formed as if going to engage, and advanced by a signal given ; when, shouting altogether, and dashing the water with their oars, with the trumpets sounding at the same time, they had the satis- faction to see the enemy give way ; for upon the approach of the vessels, the monsters ahead sunk before them, and rose again astern, where they continued their blowing without exciting any further alarm. All the credit of the victory fell to the share of Hearchus, and the acclamations of the people expressed their acknowledgment, both to his judgment and fortitude, employed in their unexpected delivery. “ The simplicity of the foregoing narrative,” continues the translator, Mr. Yincent, “ bespeaks its truth; the circumstances being such as would naturally occur to men who had seen animals of this magnitude for the first time ; and the better knowledge which our navigators are possessed of, who pursue the Whale in its Polar retreats, shows that he is sometimes as dangerous an enemy as he appeared to the followers of Hearchus.” This is the first distinct account of a great Cetacean of which we have any knowledge ; and yet, singular to remark, the par- * Von* Wrangell’s Narrative of an 'Expedition to the Polar Sea (Sabine’s translation), 1840, pp. 360, 372. ORDER 0 E CETACEA. 63 ticular species appears to Rave "been quite overlooked by modern naturalists until the year 1859, when some account of it appeared in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. It is, nevertheless, so far from being rare, indeed tbe1 sight of a shoal of these huge animals is so familiar a spectacle to mariners in the Indian Ocean, that to this very circumstance, combined with the fact of their not being of much commercial value, may be attributed the extraor- dinary absence of such memorial. Had the appearance of a shoal (schule or school in nautical language) of enormous Whales in the Arabian Sea or Persian Gulf been a phenomenon of unusual occurrence, it would unquestionably have been recorded from time to time. The great Indian Rorqual is, indeed, very common still in the seas where it was observed by Hearchus and his companions, off the coasts of Arabia and of Mekran, Sindh, the peninsula of Cutch, and again further southward, off the Malabar coast. One cast up dead upon Amherst Islet, near Pamri Island, on the Arakan coast, in the Bay of Bengal, during the rainy season of 1851, measured 84 feet in length, of which the rami of the lower jaw were 21 feet, or exactly one quarter of the total length. Another, stated to be 90 feet long, and about 42 feet in circumference, was cast upon the Chittagong coast in 1842 (in about lat. 21° H.). It appears that early on the 15 th August, the attention of the inhabitants of that coast were attracted by something in appearance like the capsized hull of a large vessel, floating on the surface of the sea, and coming towards the mouth of the Muskal River. When it approached near the land, they perceived that it was a living creature, by its continually spouting up water into the air, and by the middle of the day it cast itself on the shore of Muskal Island. By the assistance of the flood and the surf of the sea, it was brought completely on shore, where, as soon as it was landed, it appeared to be in great distress, for it roared very loudly, similar to the roar of an Elephant. An excellent observer remarks that “ these Rorquals are very common on the Malabar coast. American ships, and occasionally a Swedish one, call at Cochin for stores during their cruises for them ; but no English whalers ever come here. One, said to be 100 feet long, was stranded on the coast. I saw seven of its vertebrae and’ ribs. Another, 90 feet long, got among the reefs of Quilon, and: was murdered by some' hundreds of natives, with guns,, spears,^ axes, &c., and was cut up and eaten (salted and dried as well as 64 MAMMALIA. fresh.). The Roman Catholic fishermen of the coast pronounced it first chop beef. The Maldives and Seychelles are said to he the head- quarters of the whalers who pursue these gigantic Cetaceans.” A species much better known to naturalists is the Great Northern Rorqual (. Phy sains antiquorum, Fig. 18, p. 60), which attains to as huge a magnitude as the one already noticed. A specimen of it was found floating on the sea in a decomposed state on the 20th October, 1831, in Plymouth Sound, which is stated to have been 102 feet long, and 75 feet in circumference, but most likely (remarks Dr. Gray), the abdominal cavity was distended by internal decomposi- tion, which the great longitudinal plaits of the skin of the lower parts would permit to a considerable extent. Two others have been observed, which measured 105 feet. One of them was found dead, as mentioned by Scoresby, in Davis’s Straits ; and Captain Clarke measured the skeleton of one near the Columbia River, which extended to that length.* This animal is the Razor-back of the whalers ; and though occasionally observed in temperate latitudes, it is much more numerous further north, occurring in great numbers in the Arctic Seas, especially along the edge of the ice between Cherie Island and Nova Zembla, and also near the island of Jan Meyen. It is seldom seen amongst much ice, and seems to be avoided by the Greenland or Right Whale ; and the whalers therefore view its appearance with concern. In the Spitzbergen quarter it inhabits most* generally the parallel of from 70° to 76° ; but in summer, when the sea is open, it advances to the northward as high as 80° of latitude. The Northern Rorqual swims with a velocity at the greatest of about twelve miles an hour. It is by no means a timid animal, and usually does not appear to be mischievously disposed. When closely pursued by boats it manifests little fear, and does not attempt to outstrip them in the race, but merely endeavours to avoid them by diving and changing its direction. If harpooned, or otherwise wounded, it then exerts all its energies, and escapes with increased velocity, so that it is much more difficult to capture than the Right Whale, being also more dangerous to attack, and much less valuable when killed, as it yields a comparatively small supply of oil. * Travels to the Missouri, by Captains Lewis and Clark, p. 422. ORDER OF CETACEA. 65 But though, the regular whalers usually decline all encounter with the Great Northern Borqual, yet it is not so with the natives of the polar regions, whose wants compel them to make every exertion which promises the least success, and where cir- cumstances are frequently peculiarly favourable. In Lapland the animals sometimes yield fifteen tons of oil, and the worth of one is about £150. [Two other species of Borqual, of smaller dimensions, have been cast ashore on the British coasts, the Physalus hoops, and the P. Sibhaldii, and the Small Borqual, Balcenoptera rostrata, more commonly. This is the smallest, or, should we not rather say, the least gigantic, of the group, and indeed of all the true Whales, rarely, if ever, exceeding twenty- four or, at most, thirty feet in length. It is easily known by the white spot at the base of the upper side of its flipper. Other Whales again, of the same Borqual series, are known to mariners as Hump-hacks ; such are the Megap- tera longimana of the Greenland seas, the M. americana, stated to he common at the Bermudas, and the H. poeskop of the Southern Ocean ; which latter must again be different from the Balcenoptera australis of Lesson, as this is described to have a long dorsal fin, which, instead of being placed far backwards as usual, is situate immediately over the flippers. This southern Borqual but rarely approaches the coasts of South Africa, at least it is stated that only two or three are observed at the Cape in the course of a year ; nor does any one think of pursuing it, since its great power and velocity make it difficult and dangerous of capture, and the products by no means repay the risk and labour incurred. The remains of great Whales, referable to existing species or genera, have been found in Britain and other countries, in gravel- beds adjacent to estuaries or large rivers, in marine drift or shingle, as the “ elephant bed ” near Brighton, and in clay-beds of moderate geological antiquity ; the situations of these fossils generally indicating a gain of dry land from the sea. Thus the skeleton of one Borqual, seventy-two feet in length, found em- bedded in clay on the banks of the Forth, was more than twenty feet above the rise of the highest tide. Several bones of a Whale, discovered at Dumore Bock, Stirlingshire, were nearly forty feet above the present level of the sea. Sir George Mackenzie has recorded the discovery of a Whale vertebra in a bed of bluish F 66 MAMMALIA. clay, near Dingwall, which, contains many sea- shells, and is evidently a marine deposit ; but the spot where the vertebra was found is three miles distant from the high-water mark, and twelve feet in height above the present level of the sea.* Many other instances might be mentioned, and the petro-tympanic, or ear- bones, of Whales and Cachalots, which are not unfrequently met with, have received the appellation of cetotolites. The Cachalots, or Sperm Whales, are altogether distinct from the true Balcenidce, and Dr. Gray classes them as a distinct family, Catodontidce. Their affinity is indeed much nearer to the Dolphins and Porpoises, so much so that they range quite naturally as abnormal members of the extensive family of Delphinidce. Indeed, in one southern species, known as the Kogia or Euphysetes Grayi , not only is the size considerably reduced, but also the proportionate dimensions of the head, bringing it nearer to the ordinary forms of Dedphinidce.\ Cachalot. — The Cachalot (. Physeter macrocephalus) is of a con- siderable size. In this respect certain Whales alone surpass it. It attains to from twenty-four or twenty-six metres in length, and to seventeen metres in circumference. Its head is about one- third of the length of its whole body ; it is of a cylindrical shape, slightly compressed and truncated in front. The Cachalot is an enormous cubic mass, of ten, twelve, or fifteen metres in length, by four or five metres in breadth. When a lifeless Cachalot is floating alongside of a ship, it wants some reflection to discover its head : one would at first be tempted to take this mass for a small half- submerged ship. The mouth opens on a level with the lower surface of this monument of flesh and fat. The lower jaw is provided with large conical teeth, all similar to each other, the number of which some- times amounts to fifty-four. Corresponding with each tooth, there is in the upper jaw a cavity adapted to receive it when the mouth is shut. Behind and above the cleft of the mouth, or point of union of the lips, is the eye, placed in a manner to enable it to see obliquely on each side, in an angle of forty to fifty degrees with regard to the axis of its body. This eye is small and black. Behind the eye comes the orifice of the ear, which is hardly visible, and, farther on, the flipper, which is very small. At the extremity of the * Owen’s British Fossil Mammals and Birds , p. 562. Fig. 19.—Physeter macrocephalua. 68 MAMMALIA. upper surface is to be seen tbe spiracle, or sole orifice of tbe nasal cavities. There issue from this orifice little greyish inter- mittent clouds. The enormous head of the Cachalot joins, without any appear- ance of a neck, on to a massive conical body, terminating in a large pair of caudal flukes or lobes, each of which is hollowed out in the shape of a scythe. The end of one of these flukes is often nearly five metres distant from the extremity of the other. The animal’s back is black, or blackish ; sometimes it is shot with greenish or grey tints. The belly is whitish ; the skin is smooth, and as soft as silk. When one considers the resistance which the great vertical surface of this animal’s muzzle must oppose to its movements, one cannot at once explain the rapidity of its evolutions, and the quickness of the rate at which it travels. The fact is, in spite of its enormous mass, the Cachalot goes at about two leagues an hour, but it can double this pace. One then sees it raising and lowering its immense tail ; the body follows this movement ; it alternately uncovers itself, and then plunges into the sea. At each impulsion it rises itself thus, from eight to ten metres above the water, and sometimes it even throws itself entirely above the surface of the water. According to Dr. Thiercelin, the Cachalot can remain for a long while in the depths of the ocean. It is sometimes forty, fifty minutes, and even an hour before it reappears. It comes near shore and into shallow places near islands at the full and new moons ; it regains the open seas at the moment of the neap-tides. According to Dr. Thiercelin, it lives almost entirely on Cuttles and other Cephalopods, which, floating in the water almost without voluntary movement, are unable to escape from such a voracious enemy. According to Lacepede, on the contrary, the Cachalot greedily devours fish, and especially Cycloptera ; and it pursues also Sharks, Seals, and Dolphins. Furthermore, it never travels alone. Bands of from two to three hundred Cachalots have been met with — wandering hordes, each under the guidance of a chief that swims in front of the rest, and is ready to give, by a peculiar cry, the signal for a combat, or for a retreat. The mothers are very much attached to their young. On the least sign of danger, they carry them off, and if they are attacked they defend them to the death. If one of them has run aground ORDER OE CETACEA. 69 and been stranded, the mother, quite taken up with her efforts to save it, is not long in sharing its lot. The Cachalot is found in a great many different seas. For instance, in the latitudes of Spitzbergen, near the North Cape and the coasts of Finnmark; the seas of Greenland; the greatest part of the South Atlantic Ocean; the Britannic Gulf (in 1720, one of these animals, driven by a storm, was stranded near the mouth of the Elbe) ; the banks of Newfoundland ; the Gulf of Gascony, &c. We hear, from time to time, at long intervals, that a solitary example of this creature has been seen on our own shores (French). In 1784 thirty- two Cachalots were stranded on the coast of Audierne (Brittany). They had been preceded by a multitude of fish and of Porpoises, and their bellowings or roarings were heard for more than four kilometres inland. They remained alive on the sand for about twenty-four hours. In 1767 a Cachalot was taken in the bay of the Somme, near St. Yalery. Another ran ashore, in 1741, at the mouth of the Avons, on the coast of Bayonne. It is in the seas of India, the Moluccas, J apan, and the Corea, that the Americans and the English pursue the Cachalot — a dangerous undertaking, on account of. the agility, the suddenness of the movements, and the power of this animal. The expedition lasts from three to four years, and it is full of hazard — of perils without equal in other maritime enterprises. The Cachalot does not flee from the enemy as does the Whale ; it makes a great fight for its life. With its enormous head, a sort of gigantic battering-ram, it strikes and smashes the boats. With one blow of its powerful tail, it sweeps away and casts into the air everything it finds in its way. The taking of Cachalots is very important in a com- mercial point of view. One of these animals can furnish a hundred tons of oil. The price per ton being two hundred and fifty francs (£10) ; the total value of the oil supjDlied by one of these creatures is twenty-five thousand francs (£1,000). Com- merce and the arts derive from the Cachalot other articles besides oil ; for instance, ivory, ambergris, and spermaceti. The teeth furnish a sort of ivory, but this is of inferior quality. The ambergris is only a kind of intestinal product, or rather a part of the Cachalot’s food, incompletely digested. It is the effect of a disease, and since it is just as well to call things by their 70 MAMMALIA. proper names, it is the result of great constipation. The ordure of the cachalot, altered, modified, coagulated, and consolidated, be- comes ambergris. The origin of this substance, so much esteemed for its pleasant odour, is wanting entirely in dignity, and it is only natural that we should be surprised at its agreeable qualities. Lacepede observed that the excrements of many Mammalia, such as those of Oxen and of Pigs, diffuse, when kept for some time, an odour analogous to that of ambergris. He reminds us that Mollusks, on which the Cachalot feeds, exhale, during their lives, and even after they have been dried, an odour differing very little from that of ambergris. Where does the ambergris conceal itself P This matter is found in the intestinal canal of the Cachalot, under the form of from four to five balls, or irregular lumps. It is generally hard enough to allow of its being broken ; it adheres like wax to the blade of the knife with which it is scraped ; it softens and becomes unctuous under the influence of a gentle heat. Its odour increases under friction, or when it is exposed to heat ; its density is so slight that it floats on water. For this reason masses of ambergris are often picked up on the shore, or are found on the surface of the water. The ambergris taken from the intestines of a single Cachalot weighs 500 grains. But it sometimes weighs from five to ten kilogrammes. Large quan- tities of this sweet-scented and pungent matter are used in perfumery. Spermaceti is a concrete oil, which is fluid when the animal is alive. It hardens when exposed to the cold. It is white, bright, pearly, soft to the touch, and easily comes off in flakes. It is employed in the manufacture of wax candles for the luxurious, and in diverse preparations of perfumery and pharmacy. A Cachalot of nineteen metres in length has been known to furnish as many as three thousand kilogrammes of spermaceti. This natural product is contained in a sort of elongated canal, formed by the junction of the skull-bone with the facial bones. This reservoir is not less than two metres in depth below. It is, however, very distinct from the cavity which contains the brain, a cavity which is itself very small. The fatty, and, consequently, light matter, which surmounts the head of the Cachalot, seems to be a provision of nature. The OBDEB OF CETACEA. 71 enormous Bead, which the animal would Rave Rad sucR difficulty in raising, wRicR would Rave so mucR increased tRe weigRt of its body and clogged its movements, becomes, in consequence of tRe oil witR wRicR it is filled, a sort of floating apparatus, of wRicR tflis marine creature can, witR tRe sligRtest effort, project into tRe air tRe blowing or spouting orifice placed on tRe summit of its enormous Read. In tRe second tribe of tRe order of tRe blowing or spouting Cetaceans, we will mention tRe genera DolpRin, Porpoise, Narwhal, and others. TRe common DolpRin* is more prettily shaped than most of the other Cetaceans. It seems to be entirely composed of elongated cones, almost equal, applied to each other by their bases. TRe Read forms the extremity of the anterior cone, and joins on insensibly to the body. It terminates in a muzzle, very distinct from the skull ; it is flat from top to bottom, and rounded in its contour. It has been compared to an enormous Swan’s bill ; the sailors often call its Read the Sea- goose. TRe mouth is of a length equal to an eighth of the total length of the animal. It is, for the rest, well armed, as it contains on each side of its two jaws from forty-two to forty-five teeth, sharp, conical and pointed, which make from 168 to 180 teeth in all. TRe spiracles, or blow-holes, join together and form one single opening, situated a little above the eyes. TRe ear is very well organized ; and therefore the DolpRin can Rear from a very long way off the low groanings of its fellows. Its back is blackish, its sides rather grey, its belly white. It has a dorsal fin, pointed, and standing up on its back ; flippers, in shape like scythes ; the caudal flukes, crescent- shaped, hollowed in the middle, and ending each way in sharp horns or points. This fin, and the tail itself, can be moved with so much the more vigour as the powerful muscles which make it act are attached to the high protuberances of the lumbar vertebrae. People have always had such a great idea of the strength of the Dolphin, that, in the time of Pondelet, it was said of those who attempted to perform impossibilities, that they “ wanted * It is proper to remark here that the Dolphins (. Delphinus ) of naturalists must not he confounded with the fish ( Coryphc&na ) which is so styled by sailors, and which is renowned for the brilliancy of its iridescent colours. — Ed. ORDER OF CETACEA. IS to tie a Dolphin by the tail” ( veulent Her tin Dauphin par la queue). It is principally with the assistance of this powerful tail that the Dolphin swims with such rapidity, and that it has gained for itself the title of “ sea-arrow ” {fleche de la mer). When these Cetaceans — which go in numerous troops, and in a certain order — meet with a ship, they follow it, so as to catch the fish which the refuse thrown from the ship attracts in quantities. At whatever speed the ship may be either sailing or steaming, they keep up with it, and play about among the waves, bounding, turning over and over, and never tiring of frisking and tumbling, affording continual amusement to the crew. Their leaps, their circumvolutions, their light manoeuvres, the prettiness of their form and colour, afford a recreation to navigators fatigued by the monotony of a long sea voyage. Many authors have said that the Dolphin leaps sometimes high enough above the surface of the water to jump on board small vessels. They say that in this case the animal curves its body round with force, bends its tail like a bow, and then unbends it, in such a manner as to flv like the arrow from a bow. When they saw these animals following their ships, the sailors imagined that they were accompanying them from an instinct of sociability ; they have even gone so far as to say that these animals had a sort of affection for seamen. Of course, these ideas are unfounded. One may read in the Traite de la Navigation , by P. Fournier, a curious anecdote respecting the Dolphin. On the 1st of Sep- tember, 1638, fifteen French galleys were preparing to engage in action with as many Spanish and Sicilian vessels, which had on board, besides the ordinary complement of rowers and sailors, 3,500 foot soldiers. “ The orders received,” says P. Fournier, “ each one took his post, and the captain of the enemy was already in the midst of his fourteen galleys, when, behold, suddenly eighty or a hundred dolphins appeared on the water, and grouped themselves round the French captain, bounding on the waves, gliding from bow to stern, leaping towards the enemy, and playing a thousand antics which made all the crew break out incontinently into these joyous words — ‘ Vive le roi ! nous aurons du Dauphin ! 9 — taking this 74 MAMMALIA. sudden and unexpected meeting with tlie king of fish, who ranged himself on their side, not only as foretelling an approaching victory, but also as a certain omen that the queen would he happily delivered of a dauphin, which was true ; for four days afterwards the dauphin was born.” This dauphin, whose entrance into the world was so strangely announced, according to the saying of the sailors, during the preludes of a naval battle, was the future Louis XIY. The ancients have singularly loaded with fables the history of the Dolphin. According to them, it was a mild, familiar animal, sensible to music. It had assisted Neptune in finding his Amphi- trite. Philantes, after being shipwrecked on the coast of Italy, had been saved by a Dolphin. Arion, threatened with death by the sailors of the ship of which he was on board, having thrown himself into the sea, was picked up by a Dolphin, attracted by the sweet notes of his lyre, and conveyed safely into harbour on the animal’s back. Apollo took the form of a Dolphin when he con- ducted his colony to the Delphian shores. Neptune changed him- self into a Dolphin when he carried off Melanthus, &c. And so this marvellous creature was, among the ancients, the object of religious worship. Neptune was adored at Sunium, under the form of the Cetacean dear to his lover ; and the Delphian Apollo, honoured at Delphi, had Dolphins as his symbol. As the figures which adorned this temple dated from the most distant period, they were coarsely executed and inexact. When art had made some progress, the Grecian artists employed to reproduce these same images did not like to make any change in their drawings, which had been consecrated by tradition, and the iuLage of the Delphian Dolphins was perpetuated in painting and sculpture. It is for this reason that modern painters and sculptors represent the Dolphin still as did the Greek artists of the time of Homer — that is to say, with the tail elevated, the head large, the mouth enormous, &c. These fables, these admirations, these superstitions, inherited from antiquity, have been preserved in the different countries "which border on the Mediterranean Sea. Among many peoples the Dolphin has remained, as Lacepede tells us, a symbol of the sea. “ Twisted round a trident,” adds this naturalist, “ it represented the liberty of commerce ; placed round a tripod, it signified the OKDEK OF CETACEA. 75 college of fifteen priests who performed service at Rome in tlie temple of Apollo ; caressed by Neptune, it was tbe sign of a calm sea and tbe safety of sailors ; arranged round an anchor, or placed above an Ox with a human face, it indicated that mixture of quick- ness and slowness which is expressed by prudence.” The figure of the Dolphin is seen on the ancient medals of Tarentum and those of Paestum ; on the medals of Corinth, which give to its head its true features ; on those of AEgium, in Achaia, of Euboea, of Byzantium, Brindisi, Larinum, Lipari, Syracuse, Thera, and Yelia, as also on those of the emperors Nero, Vitellius, Yespasian, Titus, &c. As the common Dolphin is very frequently met with at the present day in the Mediterranean and the ocean, it is very pro- bable that it is to this species that all the sayings of the ancients refer. AY e must, however, mention that certain naturalists — having found that the descriptions left by the Greeks correspond only imperfectly with the common Dolphin, that the representations are often unlike, and generally inexact — have thought that they ought to come to the conclusion that the marvellous animal so much spoken of by the ancients was a creation of the fancy. But this opinion cannot be admitted, after the explanation given by Lacepede, and from which it results that the want of accuracy in the representations of the Dolphin arose from the respect which the painters and sculptors of Greece showed to the traditional image of the Dolphin which was handed down to them from their most ancient artists, the contemporaries of Homer. The different species of Dolphins are extremely numerous. Porpoise. — Porpoises differ from Dolphins in having the muzzle short, uniformly rounded, and not having the form of a beak. The common Porpoise (Fig. 21) is one of the smallest of the Cetaceans : it is only one metre twenty-five centimetres in length. It lives in numerous troops, and attracts attention by its merry gam- bols amongst the waves. The Mackerel, the Herring, and the Salmon flee before these turbulent troops of Porpoises. These troops are sometimes so numerous that, at the moment when the individual creatures composing them come to the surface to breathe, they darken the surface of the ocean. One then sees their oily blackish bodies shining on all sides. Porpoises make desperate war on the fish we have just mentioned, 76 MAMMALIA, and particularly on Salmon. These try in vain to escape from their enemy ; their manoeuvres are generally defeated with marvellous address. Travellers, who have witnessed the pursuit of the Sal- mon by the Porpoise, say that it is a very curious and amusing sight. The Porpoise abounds in our (French) seas ; it even comes up the rivers, and has been sometimes seen at Fouen, and even as far as Paris. In the middle ages, Porpoise hunting was of a certain importance to the European nations ; for its flesh was then much sought after by all classes of society. The pursuit of them is still carried on in the north, either for their flesh, which is eaten Fig. 21. — Porpoise. by the Laplanders and Greenlanders, or for their fat, which is sent into Europe. The common Porpoise is one of the smallest of the animals of this family; the Grampus, or the Gladiator Dolphin (Orca), is, on the other hand, one of the largest animals of its group, attaining to eight metres in length. The Grampus is common in northern seas. It is a very strong and excessively voracious animal. Sir Joseph Banks says that a Grampus, which had been struck with harpoons and made fast to a boat, towed it with four people in it, in spite of a strong OEDEE OE CETACEA. 77 tide which, was running eight miles an hour, from Blackwall to Greenwich, and then on to Deptford. This animal is celebrated for the combats in which it engages with the giant of the seas — the Whale. Grampuses go in troops, and if they meet with a Whale they rush upon it, hustle and worry it ; and then, when overcome with fatigue, it opens its mouth, they devour its tongue. Narwhal.— Narwhals differ very little from Porpoises in their general form and the colour of their bodies ; but at the first glance they are easily to be distinguished from all other Cetaceans by the singular tusk with which nature has provided them. Of the two incisive teeth implanted in the upper jaw of the Narwhal, one is almost entirely an abortion, whilst the other, by a sort of organic compensation, is prodigiously elongated in a straight line, and is simply an enormous stiletto, which is rounded with a spiral fluting, a sharp point at the extremity, and which is of one-third or half the length of the animal. This strange creature has then but one tooth — and what a tooth ! It is, in fact, a sword of ivory.* There have been, both among the ancients and the moderns, many stories about the Narwhal’s tooth. It was formerly con- sidered to be like the horn of the Pnicorn, which was situated on the middle of the forehead. This fabulous being resembled, they said, the Horse and the Stag. Aristotle and Pliny have described it, and it is represented on many ancient monuments. It was adopted by the chivalry of the middle ages, and has often decorated the trophies in military fetes. Our ancestors attributed to the tooth of the Narwhal, which they called the tooth of the Unicorn, marvellous medicinal virtues. They considered it an infallible antidote to all poisonous sub- stances ; they were persuaded that it counteracted all the hurtful properties of venemous substances. Charles IX., dreading lest he should be poisoned, was very careful to put into his cup of wine a piece of the Sea Unicorn’s tooth. Ambroise Pare was the first who dared to lift up his voice against these errors. Very soon afterwards the Unicorn ceased to be an object of exorbitant price on account of its rarity and its supposed virtues. * In the Museum of Natural History at Amsterdam, there is a Narwhal skull with two fully developed tusks. It is the only instance known. — Ed. 78 MAMMALIA. It passed from tlie apothecary’s laboratory to tbe naturalist’s collection, where it was long preserved under the name of horn or tusk of the Unicorn. In the fable of “Les oreilles du Lievre,” La Fontaine alludes to these superstitious notions. A Lion, wounded by a horned animal, issues a decree that every animal having horns be banished from his domain. A Hare perceiving the shadow of its own ears, and fearing that they would be taken for horns, is preparing to go into banishment. “Adieu, voisin Grillon,” dit-il; “ je pars d’ici ! Mes oreilles enfin seraient cornes aussi ; Et quand je les aurais plus courtes qu’une Autruche, Je craindrais meme encor.” Le Grillon repartit — “ Cornes cela ! Yous me prenez pour cruclie ! Ce sont oreilles que Dieu fit.” “ On les fera passer pour cornes,” Lit T animal craintif, “ et cornes de Licornes !”* The true nature of this tusk was shown for the first time by a naturalist of the Renaissance, one Wormius, who had found it affixed in its socket in a skull similar to that of a Whale. But it was not till 1671 that Frederick Martens gave a tolerably correct description of the Harwhal. These Cetaceans live in the neighbour- hood of Iceland, and in the seas which wash the shores of Greenland. They gather together in the creeks of the ice islands, and travel in bands. It would be very difficult to take them if they did not live in troops ; for, when isolated, they swim with such rapidity as to escape from all pursuit. But when they are near together they mutually embarrass each other, and are easily caught. When the fishing-boats glide cautiously in between their long files they close their ranks, and press against each other so much that they paralyze each other’s movements ; they become entangled in the tusks of those near them, or else, lifting their heads in the air, they rest their tusks on the backs of those which are in front of them. They can from that minute neither retreat, nor advance, * “ Adieu, neighbour Cricket,” said he ; “I depart hence ! My ears at last will he horns also ; And even if they were shorter than those of an Ostrich, I should still he afraid.” The Cricket answered — “ Those horns ! You must take me for a fool ! Those are ears which God has given you.” “ They will make them pass for horns,” Said tlie timid creature ; “ and for Unicorn's horns too /” OEDEE OE CETACEA. 79 nor fight, and they fall under the blows of tbe sailors wbo are in tbe boats (Fig. 22). Tbe Icelanders manufacture witb tbe Narwhal’s tusks tbeir arrows for tbe chase, and tbe poles wbicb they use in tbe construc- tion of tbeir buts ; but tbey do not eat its flesh, because tbey believe it to be venemous.* Tbis is not tbe case, however, witb tbe Greenlanders, and other inhabitants of tbe north, wbo esteem it excellent. Tbey dry it by exposing it to tbe smoke. Tbe oil furnished by tbe Narwhal is, it is said, preferable to that of tbe Whale. Naturalists are not agreed as to tbe use of tbe Narwhal’s formidable weapon. Tbey say that tbey use it in tbeir attacks on tbe Whale, and that tbey kill tbis monster by running tbeir swords into its belly. Lacepede says that tbeir tusks have been found deeply implanted in tbe bodies of Whales ; but other authors formally deny that battles ever take place between these two terrible combatants. Narwhals sometimes rush witb prodigious speed and force against vessels, wbicb tbey no doubt take for some gigantic prey. If tbe animal attack tbe ship on tbe side as it is sailing, tbe tooth, imbedded in tbe wood, breaks off ; but if it attack it from behind, tbe Narwhal remains fixed to tbe ship ; it is then dragged along and towed till it dies. Certain naturalists, relying on tbe fact that tbe Narwhal’s tusk is smooth towards tbe end, wbicb is sometimes rounded and, as it were, worn away, have concluded that tbe animal uses its born for piercing tbe ice, when it wants to come up and breathe, and to save itself a long journey to tbe open water. Others have thought that these traces of wear and tear of its weapon arise from tbe friction of it in sand or against rocks, when tbe animal is looking there for its food, wbicb consists of Cuttle-fish, flat fish, Cod, Fay, Oysters, and other Mollusks. And, lastly, it has been stated that the Narwhal uses its natural lance for attacking its prey, for killing it, and perhaps also for tearing it up before it devours it. Thus tbe Narwhal’s tooth would seem to be at tbe same time an instrument wbicb serves to satisfy tbe wants of tbe * The name this animal hears was given to it hy the Icelanders. The meaning . of the word is “ Whale that feeds on dead bodies ; ” for the word nar in their language means dead body or carcass, and the word JVhal, Whale. i Fig. 22. — Icelanders fishing for Narwhals. ORDER OE CETACEA. 81 ordinary life of tlie animal, useful to it for its respiration, its nutri- tion, and, at the same time, an offensive and defensive weapon. Narwhals are not always brutal and warlike. Scoresby saw some very merry bands of these marine animals ; they raised their horns and crossed them, as if they were going to fence, and they followed the ship with a sort of wild curiosity. The ivory of the Narwhal’s tusk is an object of great value, for it is more compact, harder, and susceptible of a finer polish than that of the Elephant. It is on this account that visitors to the library of Versailles are shown a walking-stick made of narwhal ivory inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Of this ivory is made the throne of the kings of Denmark, which was to he seen, and which is, perhaps, to he seen still, in the Castle of Rosenberg. A most excellent observer, Mr. R. Brown, remarks that “ the Narwhal is gregarious, generally travelling in great herds. I have seen,” he relates, “a herd of many thousands travelling north in their summer migrations, tusk to tusk and tail to tail, like a regiment of cavalry, so regularly did they seem to rise and sink into the water in their undulatory movements in swimming. It is very active, and will often dive with the rapidity of the Right Whale, taking out thirty or forty fathoms of line. These ‘ schules ’ are not all of one sex, as stated by Scoresby, but consist of males and females mixed. The use of the tusk has long been a matter of dispute : it has been supposed to use it to stir up its food from the bottom ; but if such were the case the females would he sadly at a loss. They seem to fight with them ; for it is rarely that an unbroken one is obtained, and occasionally one may be found with the point of another jammed into the broken place, where the tusk is young enough to be hollow, or entirely lost close to the skull. Fabricius thought that this protuberance was to keep the holes open in the ice during the winter ; and the following occurrence seems to support his view. In April, 1860, a Greenlander was travel- ling along the ice in the vicinity of Christianshaab, and discovered one of those open places in the ice which, even in the most severe winters, remain free of ice. In this hole hundreds of Narwhals and Belugas were protruding their heads to breathe, no other open spot presenting itself for miles around. It was described to me as akin to an arctic Black Hole in Calcutta, from the crowding of the Narwhals in their eagerness to keep to the place. Hundreds of G 82 MAMMALIA. Eskimo and Danes resorted thither with their Dogs and sledges and while one shot the animal, another harpooned it, to prevent it being pushed aside by the anxious crowd of brethren. Dozens of both Narwhals and Belugas were killed, but many were lost before they were brought home, the ice breaking up soon after. In the ensuing summer the natives found many dead washed up in the bays and inlets around. Fabricius describes a similar scene. Neither the Narwhal nor the Beluga are timid animals, but will approach close to, and gambol for hours in the immediate vicinity of a ship/’ In the female of the Narwhal the tusks are rudimentary, but exist within the intermaxillary bone, each about ten inches long, rough, and with no inclination to spire ; “ in fact,” remarks Mr. Brown, “not unlike a miniature piece of pig-iron. On the other hand, the undeveloped tusk in the male is smooth and tapering, and wrinkled longitudinally. Double-tusked Narwhals are not uncommon. I have seen them swimming about among the herd, and several such skulls have been preserved. The colour of the animal is greyish, or velvet-black, with white spots, sometimes roundish, but more frequently irregular blotches of no certain outline, running into one another. There are no spots on the tail or flippers, but waxy-like streaks shade off on each side at the junction of the tail, which is white at the line of inden- tation. The female is more spotted than the male. The young is, again, much darker ; and individuals have been seen which were almost white, like the one Anderson describes as having come ashore at the mouth of the Elbe. In a female killed at Pond’s Bay, in August, 1861, the stomach was corrugated in complicated folds, as were also the small intestines. It contained Crustaceans, bones of Fishes, and an immense quantity of the horny mandibles of some species of Cuttle (probably, Sepia loligo) firmly packed one within the other.”* The Narwhal is chiefly an inhabitant of the polar regions, and very rarely strays to temperate latitudes ; still fossil remains of it have been found both in England and France. A male taken entangled among the rocks at the entrance to the sound of Weesdale, in Zetland, on the 27th of September, 1808, measured twelve feet, exclusive of the tusk. The Beluga (. Beluga catodon), or “White Whale” of British * Proceedings of the Zoological Society , 1868, p. 552. OEDEE OE CETACEA. S3 seamen, is an animal nearly akin to the Narwhal, hut it is not provided with a tusk, and it has some teeth situated in the front half only of the jaws, which are conical, oblique, often truncated from attrition, and in the upper jaw not unfrequently disappearing. These teeth vary in number, hut there is usually a row of nine above and eight below, occasionally one more or less. The colour of the Beluga is wholly white, but the young are black. In length it rarely exceeds fifteen feet. According to Mr. B. Brown, this animal “is, beyond all comparison, so far as its importance to the Greenlander and Eskimo are concerned, the Whale of Greenland. Like the Narwhal, it is indigenous ; but it is only seen on the coast of Danish Greenland during the winter months, leaving the coast south of 72Q N. lat. in June, and roaming about at the head of Baffin’s Bay and the western shore of Davis’s Strait during the summer. In October it is seen to go west, not south ; but in winter it can be observed, in company with the Narwhal, at the broken places in the ice. Its range may be said to be the same as that of the Narwhals ; and during the summer months corresponds with that of the Bight Whale, of which it is considered the precursor. It, however, wanders farther south than the Narwhal, being found as a regular denizen as far south as 63° N. lat., on the European coast, though on the opposite, or American side of the Atlantic, it reaches much farther south, being quite common in the St. Lawrence river. The Greenlanders, during the summer, kill great numbers of them, and preserve their oil and dry their flesh for winter use. Of this animal and the Narwhal about 500 are yearly caught by the Greenlanders ; but the majority of this number are Belugas. It feeds on Crustaceans, Fishes, and Cuttles, and in the stomach is generally found sand. The Greenlanders often jocularly remark, in reference to this, that the Kelelluak takes in ballast. Great numbers are captured by means of nets at the entrance of fjords and inlets, or in the sounds between islands. The young are darker coloured than the adult, and can at once be distinguished among the herds of the adults, which are of a pinky- white colour. It is said to be rarely seen far from land. The males and females go together in the herd, and do not separate, as has been stated. Their blast is not unmusical ; and, when under the water, they emit a peculiar whistling sound, which might be mistaken for the Gr 2 84 MAMMALIA. call of a bird ; on this account, the seamen often term them Sea- canaries / It is rarely that the regular whalers kill a Beluga, their swiftness and activity giving them more trouble than the oil is worth. I did hear, however, of one whaler that killed several hundreds in the course of a summer ; but this is almost an isolated case.”* According to Professor Eschricht, the Beluga contains enormous quantifies of Cuttle ( Sepia loligo), Haddock ( Gadus ceglifinus), and large Prawns. In August, 1793, two males were cast ashore on the beach of the Pentland Frith, some miles east of Thurso ; and one was killed on the eastern Scotch coast in June, 1815. A very few other instances are on record of the Beluga visiting the British Islands. An animal of this species was kept for some time alive in a tank in North America. f It was sufficiently well trained during the time that he was in confinement to allow himself to be har- nessed to a car, in which he drew a young lady round the tank. It learned to recognise its keeper, and would allow itself to be handled by him, and at the proper time would come and put its head out of the water to receive the harness or take its food. This one was less docile, however, than an example of Delphinus tursio , which was for a time with it in the same tank.J A second species of Beluga ( B . Kingii) has been obtained off the coasts of Australia, but not much is known of it. In the second edition of the British Museum Catalogue of Seals and Whales , by Dr. J. E. Gray, published in 1866, the Cetacea are divided into two suborders, Cete and Sirenia ; and the Cete into two sections, Mysticete and Denticete. The Mysticete consist of the Toothless Whales and Rorquals, and the Denticete of the Cacha- lots, Dolphins, and other genera that have teeth. Two families are recognised of the Mysticete, viz., Balcenida (the Whale), and Balcenopterince (the Rorquals), &c. ; and the Balcenopteridce are arranged into three subfamilies, viz., Mcgapterince (the Hunch- back), Physalince, and Balcenopterince. Of a fossil species, Palceo - cetus Sedgeicickii, however, some remains of which have been found in the Norfolk “crag” deposit, Dr. Gray remarks, that “ probably when it is better known it will form a family ( Palceoce - tided), to be placed between Balcenidce and Balcenopteridce .” Of * Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1868, p. 551. f At Barnum’s Museum, New York. J Poston Journal of Natural History , 1863, p. 330. ORDER OE CETACEA. 85 Balceniclce lie recognises five genera, viz., Balcena , Eubalcem , Ilun- terius , Caperia, and Macleayius. In Balcena tlie flakes of baleen are tliin and polished, with a thick enamel coat and a fine fringe ; in the others the baleen is thick and not polished, and has a thin enamel coat and a coarse thick fringe. Of Balcena three species are recognised, and a fourth admitted dubiously. These are — 1. B. mysticetus, the Arctic Right Whale ; 2. B. biscayensis, which is accepted as extinct by Professors Eschricht and Yan Bemden, and of which there is a skeleton in the Museum of Pampeluna ; 3. B. merginata, the Western .Australian Right Whale, which acording to Dr. Gray, “is undoubtedly a very distinct species;5’ 4. (P) R. gibbosa, the alleged Scrag Whale of the Atlantic, which is thus described by Dudley in the Philosophical Transactions for 1725 : “ Nearly akin to the Fin-back, but instead of a fin upon its back, the ridge of the after-part of its back is scragged with half-a-dozen knobs or knuckles. He is nearest the Right Whale {B. mysticetus ) in figure and quantity of oil. His bone (whale- bone) is white, but won’t split.” Cuvier supposed that this Scrag Whale was merely a Rorqual that had been mutilated; but Dr. Gray suspects, “from Dudley’s account of the former, that it must be a Balcena , probably well-known formerly. Indeed, Beale, * in his History of the Sperm Whale , speaks of it as recognised by the whalers now ; but (according to Dieffenbach) ‘ Scrags ’ is the whalers’ name for th A young of the Right Whale.” Our latest authority, Mr. R. Brown, in his very excellent paper On the Cetaceans of the Greenland Seas * remarks, “ What the Scrag Whale of Dudley is I cannot imagine. It is not now known to the whalers.” He also remarks that “ Professors Eschricht and Reinhardt consider that there is a second species of Right Whale found in the Greenland and northern seas, the ‘ Nord-caper ’ {Balcena nord-caper of Bonaterre, B. islandica of Brisson, &c.), the ‘ Slethag ’ of the Icelanders, and that the following facts have been ascertained regarding it : — 1st, that it is much more active than the Greenland Whale, much quicker and more violent in its move- ments, and, accordingly, both more difficult and dangerous to capture ; 2nd, that it is smaller (it being, however, impossible to give an exact statement of its length), and has much less blubber ; 3rd, that its head is shorter, and that its whalebone is compara- * Proceedings op tlie Zoological Society,, 1868, p. 347. 86 MAMMALIA. tively small, and scarcely more than lialf tlie length, of that of the B. mysticetus ; 4th, that it is regularly infested with a parasite belonging to the genus Coronula , and that it belongs to the tem- perate North Atlantic as exclusively as the B. mysticetus belongs to the icy sea, so that it must be considered exceptional when either of them stray into the range of the other. Moreover, they consider that in its native seas it was to be found farther towards the south in the winter (viz., in the Bay of Biscay, and near the coast of North America down to Cape Cod), while in the summer it roamed about around Iceland, and between this island and the most northerly part of Norway. Dr. Eschricht considers that this was the Whale captured by the Basque whalers in the seventeenth century ; hence he has called it B. biscayensis.” Un- fortunately, Mr. Brown’s valuable paper was not published when our previous notice of the Whales was committed to press, and we have not the space to quote from it so extensively as might be desirable. As regards the colour of the baleen, he informs us that it is variable. “ In the young the laminoe are frequently striped green and black, but on the old animal they are occasionally alto- gether black ; often some of the laminae are striped with alternate streaks of black and white, whilst others want this variegation. Whale-bone is said to be occasionally found white without the animal differing in the slightest degree ; ” and, accordingly, this character loses its supposed importance as being a peculiarity of the exceedingly dubious Scrag Whale indicated by' Dudley. It appears that the Balcena mysticetus Occasionally attains to a length of sixty-five feet ; and Mr. Brown remarked of it, “ Though per se, the tail has no power, yet, as the instrument through which the lumbar muscles (the tendinous attachments of which seem to be prolonged into the cartilaginous substance of the tail) work, it exerts enormous force. The figure usually engraved in boys’ books of sea adventures, and copied from Scoresby’s crew up into the air, is generally looked upon by all the whalers to whom I have shown it as an artistic exaggeration. Accidents of this nature are very rare, and never proceed to such an extent ; and I have no doubt that Dr. Scoresby’s artist has taken liberties with his description, that worthy navigator being himself above any suspicion of exaggeration for the sake of effect. Captain Alexander Deuchars, who has now made upwards of fifty voyages OEDEE OF CETACEA. 87 into the Arctic regions, informed me that he had known a Whale toss a boat nearly three feet into the air, and itself rise so high out of the water that you could see beneath it, hut that, if Scoresby’s figure was correct, the Whale must have tossed the boat very many feet into the air — a feat which he did not think w~as within the hounds of, if not possibility, yet of proba- bility.”* With respect to the Whale “ spouting,” as it is commonly styled, Mr. Brown remarks, that “ most of the slimy-looking substances found floating in the Arctic seas are generally masses of Diatomacce combined with Protozoa, &c. ; but in some cases it is the mucous lining of the bronchial passages which has been dis- charged when the animal was ‘blowing/ This ‘blowing/ so familiar a feature in the Cetaceans, but especially of the Bight Whales, is quite analogous to the breathing of the higher mam- mals, and the ‘blow-holes’ are the perfect analogues of the nostrils. It is most erroneously stated that the Whale ejects water from the ‘ blow-holes/ I have been many times only a few feet from the Whale when ‘blowing/ and, though purposely observing it, could never see that it ejected from its nostrils anything but the ordinary breath, a fact which might have almost been deduced from analogy. In the cold Arctic air this breath is generally condensed, and falls upon those close at hand in the form of a dense spray, which may have led seamen to suppose that this vapour was originally ejected in the form of water. Occasionally when the Whale blows just as it is rising out of, or sinking in, the sea, a little of the superincumbent water may be ejected upwards by the column of breath. When the Whale is wounded in the lungs, or in any of the blood-vessels immediately supplying them, blood, as might be expected, is ejected in the death-throes along with the breath. When the whaler sees his prey ‘ spouting red/ he concludes that its end is not far distant ; for it is then mortally wounded.” “ After Man, the chief enemy of the Whale is Orca gladiator, the most savage of all the Cetaceans, and the only one which feeds upon other animals belonging to the order. The Thresher Sharkf * In the South Atlantic Ocean, near the island of Tristan d’Acuna, the evening previous to a gale of wind, we have seen several large Whales repeatedly jump clear of the water. — Ed. f Specimens of which are to he found in Mr. Buckland’s Museum at South Kensington. 88 MAMMALIA. (Alopias vulpes), the very existence of which Scoresby seemed to doubt, but which is now so comparatively well-known to naturalists and seamen, is also an enemy of the Whale. It is doubtful, however, whether it attacks it in life, or only preys upon it after death. The Advice (Captain A. Deuchars) once took a dead Whale alongside, which this Shark was attacking in dozens, the belly being perfectly riddled by them.* The Greenland Shark (. Scymnus borealis), though it gorges itself with the dead Whale, does not appear to trouble it during life. Martens’s most circum- stantial account of the fight between the Whale and Sword-fish seems to have originated in a misconception, this name being applied by seamen not only to the scomberoid fish ( Xiphias ), but also to the Gladiator Dolphin, which, it is well known, fights furiously with the Right Whale. The Whale must attain a great age, nor does it seem to be troubled with many diseases. Whales which are seen floating dead are almost always found to have been wounded. They are often killed with harpoon-blades embedded deep in the blubber ; and some of these, from the marks on them, have been proved to be the remains of fights of a very ancient date, and in which the Whale has come off victor.” “ Each species of Whale,” remarks Dr. Gray, “ has its own peculiar kind of sessile Cirriped ; one has the Coronula , another the Diadema, and a third the Tubicinella. They are all sunk in the surface of the skin, with the aperture for the free valve, or operculum as it is called, alone exposed, and as they grow in size the deeper they sink into the skin. Some genera allied to Coronulce are found on the shells of Turtles, and on the outer surface of shells that are partially covered by the mantle of the animal. The Whales have also pedunculated Cirripeds, as Otions, on them ; these were early observed : ‘ This Whale hath naturally growing upon his backe white things like unto Barnacles.’ ( Purchas , Pilgrims, 471).” In the genus Eubalcena the head is about a fourth of the entire length, and there are some other differences. Only one species can with certainty be referred to it, the Cape Whale (E. australis), of which a female measured sixty- eight feet in length. In the * The sailors have a notion that the Shark does not hite out the pieces, hut cuts them hy means of its curved dorsal fin, and seizes them as they sink when severed from the victim. This belief is widely and firmly received. ORDER OF CETACEA. 89 Greenland Right Whale, and probably in all other Bcilcenidce , the female is the larger. The Japanese Whale (E. Siebaldii of Gray), according to that naturalist, “ is only described and figured from a model made in porcelain clay by a Japanese under the inspection of a Japanese whaler and of Dr. Siebold ; hut no remains of the animal were brought to Europe ; so that we do not know whether it is a Eubalcena or a Hanterius , or if it may not be an entirely new form.” Mr. Bennett observes that “ the Right Whale, so abundant and so little molested in the northernmost waters of the Pacific, especially off the north-west coast of America, is probably identical with the Greenland species ; ”* but Dr. Gray remarks that its baleen, which is very inferior in quality to that of B. mysticetus , “ shows that it is more allied to the Cape species, but apparently distinct from it.” Hunterius Temmwckii , Caperio antipodosum , and Madeayius australiensis, are three other Southern Whales, the distinctions of which are only beginning to be under- stood. In one or more of them a curious horny substance is commonly observed upon the fore part of the head, which the whalers denominate the creature’s “ bonnet.” One in the British Museum, obtained at the Sandwich Islands, is oblong in shape, eleven inches long and eight inches wide, with a very rough, pitted surface. The whole substance seems to be formed of irregular horny layers placed one over the other, the lowest layer being the last one formed ; and each of these layers is more or less crumpled and plicated on the surface, giving the irregular appearance to the mass. “ I do not recollect observing any account of this ‘ bonnet,’ ” writes Dr. Gray, “or giant corn, or rudimentary frontal horn, as it may be regarded, in any account of the Right Whale, nor in that of the Cachalot. I have especially searched for it in works by persons who have seen these whales alive, but without success. It has been suggested by Mr. Holdsworth, that the ‘ bonnet ’ may be a natural development, and possibly charac- teristic of the species bearing it.” In the true Cetacea generally, or Cete of Dr. Gray, there are no hairs upon the skin, and the nearest approximation to bristles is generally supposed to be furnished by the baleen of the Mysticete ; but a South American genus of beaked Dolphin, Inia, has a well- bristled rostrum ; and in his description of the Greenland Right * Whaling Voyage , vol. ii. p. 229. 90 MAMMALIA. Whale, Mr. Brown states that “ the whiskers consist of nine or ten short rows of bristles, the longest bristles anteriorly. There are also a few bristles on the apices of both jaws, and a few hairs stretching all along the side of the head for a few feet backwards. On the tip of the nose are two or three rows of very short white hairs, with fewer hairs in the anterior rows, more in the posterior. I have reason to believe that some of these hairs are deciduous, as they are often wanting in old individuals.” Notwithstanding their abnormability of external form, and of their mode of life, as compared with the generality of the class Mammalia, it is thus seen that even the great toothless Whales tend to exhibit one of the usual characteristics of the class to which they appertain, j which is to be clad with hair or fur ; and it is highly probable I that it has been overlooked in sundry species of them. Of the three subfamilies of Balcenopievidoe , the Meg apt evince j comprise three genera — Megaptera , Poescopia , and Eschvichtius ; 1 the Physalince comprise Benedenia, Physalus , Cuvierius, and Sib- baldius ; and the Balcenopt evince consist of one genus only — Balcenoptevus. Many naturalists are of opinion that Dr. Gray carries the dis- crimination of these genera to excess ; but, after briefly assigning certain distinctions, it is remarked by him that “ the student must not run away with the idea that because the characters of the genera here given are taken from a few parts of the skeleton, they are the only differences that exist between the skeletons of the different genera and species. The form of the head, and the peculiarities of the cervical vertebrae, of the ribs and of the blade- bone, have been selected, after a long and careful comparison of the skeletons, as the parts which afford the most striking characters that can be the most easily conveyed to the mind of the student in a few words, and therefore best adapted for the dis- tinction of the genera and species.” It is at least tolerably certain now that the species of these huge marine creatures are sur- ; prisingly numerous, instead of their being comparatively very few, ! as was supposed formerly ; and several of them have only recently become adequately recognised, whilst by far the greater number are still insufficiently known to be regarded as definitely estab- lished. Here we can do little more than briefly indicate the principal forms. ORDER OE CETACEA. 91 The Megapterince, or Hump-backed Whales, form a well-distin- guished subfamily of Balcenopteridce. They have remarkably long flippers, each containing four very long fingers, composed of many phalangial bones; the dorsal fin, low and broad, being said to resemble that of a Cachalot. Hr. Gray adopts three genera of them — Megaptera , Poescopia, Eschrichtius ; founding each of them upon a single species, and provisionally referring from other species to the first one. In one or more of the species the Hump-back Whales occur in most parts of the world, generally in small herds, and seldom at any considerable distance from land, “ although,” remarks Mr. Bennett, “ the vicinity of the most abrupt coast would appear to be their favourite resort. Examples,” he adds, “ are occasionally seen in the neighbourhood of the islands of the Pacific, and very frequently in the deep water round the island of St. Helena. They are most abundant off the bold coast of Cape St. Lucas, California.” The Keporkak of the Greenlanders is the Megaptera longimana of Hr. Gray. “ This Whale,” writes Mr. Brown, “is only found on the Greenland coast in the summer months. For many years it has been regularly caught at the settlement of Frederickshaab, in South Greenland. In JSTorth Greenland it is not much troubled. Whilst dredging in the harbour of Egedesminde one snowy June day a large Keporkak swam into the bay ; but though there were plenty of boats at the settlement, and the natives were very short of food, yet they stood on the shore staring at it without attempting to kill it. The natives of this settlement are, no doubt, the poorest hunters and fishers in all Horth Greenland (if we except Godharn, the next most civilised place) ; but there were at that time at the settlement natives from outlying places. A whaler, Captain John Walker, one year, in default of better game, killed fifteen Hump-backs in Hisco Bay. He got blubber from them sufficient, according to ordinary calculation, to yield seventy tons of oil, but on coming home it only yielded eighteen. The baleen is short and of little value. Though one of the most common Whales on the Greenland coast, yet, on this account and being difficult to capture, it is rarely troubled.”* Professor Eschricht, a high authority among Cetologists, believes the Keporkak of Greenland and the Bermuda Whale to be the same species, and that it migrates from Greenland * Proceedings of the Zoological Society , 1868, p. 548. 92 MAMMALIA. to Bermuda, according to the season ; and he states that he cannot find any sufficient difference in the skeleton of the Cape specimen in the Paris Museum to separate it as a species from the Green- land example. A young female, thirty- five feet long, the pectorals measuring ten feet, was obtained in the estuary of the Dee in 1863, and its skeleton is now exhibited in Liverpool. The stomach con- tained only shrimps. There is a very fine and complete skeleton, forty- six feet in length, of an adult individual in the museum at Brussels. Dr. Gray, however, regards the Bermuda Hump- back as distinct, and terms it M. americana. One is described as measuring eighty- eight feet in length, with the flippers twenty- six feet long, and the tail flukes twenty-three feet broad. The Cape Hump-back is the Poescopia Lalandii of Dr. Gray ; and his Esehrichtius robustus is a remarkable northern species, of which not much is known. A skeleton of it was found in Denmark at a depth of two to four feet below the surface of the ground, about 840 feet from the present sea-beach, and about twelve to fifteen feet above the level of the sea. Other Hunch-backs are indicated by Dr. Gray, as Megaptera novazelandim, M. (?) Burmeisteri , from the coast of Buenos Ayres, and M. Kuzira , from that of J apan. The numerous Borquals fell under Dr. Gray’s subfamilies Phy- salince and Balcenopterince , which do not differ much from each other. To his genus Physalus he refers, — 1. P. antiquorum, the ordinary Great ^Northern Rorqual ; 2. P. Duguidii, also northern; 3. P. Sibbaldii (afterwards identified with Cuvierus latirostris, but the specific name Sibbaldii being retained; a valuable memoir upon which has been published by Dr. J. Reinhardt),* again northern ; these three are now tolerably well known, but the following are much less so — 4. P. (?) australis, Falkland Islands ; 5. P. brasiliensis, from near Bahia; 6. P (?) fasciatus , from the coast of Peru; 7. P. indicus ; 8. P. (?) iwasi, Japanese seas; 9. P. antarcticus, from those of Hew Zealand ; 10. P. Grayi, which has to be added, from the Australian colony of Victoria, where it has been described by Professor McCay, an example of it having been there stranded that measured ninety feet in length, f Other species, detached from Physalus, are Benedenia Knoxii, obtained on the coast of Wales ; Cuvierus Sibbaldii, already noticed ; Sibbaldius * Translated in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for Nov., 1868, p. 323. f Proceedings of the Zoological Society , 1867, p. 707. OEDEE OE CETACEA. 93 laiiceps and S. borealis , from the northern seas ; S. Sclegelii, from the Malayan seas ; and S. antarcticus, from the Southern Ocean. Balcenoptera he restricts to the comparatively small B. rostrata, hut in his appendix he adds B. Swinbaci, from the vicinity of Formosa; and B. bonaerensis has subsequently been described by Dr. H. Burmeister from a Forqual that was found floating on the Fiver Plata about ten miles from Buenos Ayres, but this will not improbably prove to be a Pkysalus * When these animals become better known it is probable that the number of species will be reduced rather than increased. Of Physalus antiquorum it is remarked by Mr. F. Brown, that “ this species, in common with most of the family Balcenopteridce, does not go far north as a rule, but keeps about the Cod-banks of Kifkal, Holsteenborg, and other localities in South Greenland. They feed upon Cod and other fish, which they devour in immense quantities. Desmoulins mentions six hundred being taken out of the stomach of one ; I know an instance in which eight hundred were found. They often, in common with Sibbaldius borealis and Balcenoptera rostrata , wander into the European seas in pursuit of Cod and Herrings, and are quite abundant in the vicinity of Foekal. A few years ago much excitement was got up about the number of ‘ Whales* found in that locality, and companies were started to kill them, supposing them to be the Fight Whale of commerce. As might have been expected, they proved only to be ‘ Finners/ which prey on the immense quantities of Cod which are found there. This Whale is accounted almost worthless by the whalers ; and, on account of the small quantity of oil which it yields and the difficulty of capture, it is never attacked unless by mistake or through ignorance. I remember seeing one floating dead in Davis Strait, to which the men rowed, taking it for a Fight Whale ; but on discovering their mistake they immediately abandoned it. They had apparently not been the first, for on its sides were cut the names of several vessels which had paid it a visit, and did not consider it worth the carriage and fire to fry out the oil. The blubber is hard and cartilaginous, not unlike soft glue. Its ‘ blow- ing ’ can be distinguished at a distance by being whiter and lower than that of Balcena mysticetus. The Sibbaldius borealis is popularly confounded with it, and the same names are applied to the two by * Vide Annals and Magazine of Natural History, third series, vol. xx. (1867), p. 177. 94 MAMMALIA. the whalers and Eskimo. The latter species visits the coast of Greenland only in the summer months, from March to November, and its range may be given as the same. In common with the other, it is rarely killed by the natives. The small Balcenoptera rostrata only comes in the summer months to Davis Strait and Baffin’s Bay, or very seldom during the winter to the southern portion of Greenland. It is not killed by the natives, and its range is that of its congeners. The natives of the western shores j! of Davis Strait seldom recognised the figures of this and kindred | species of Whales, though the Greenlanders instantly did so.”* Family or Herbivorous Cetacea, f — The diet of these animals has necessitated their being provided with molar teeth, having \ those parts which project from the gums fiat ; they also have the faculty of dragging themselves along on the ground, so as to enable them to feed on the sea-shore. Their anterior members are more flexible than those of the true Cetacea, and they are never found in the open ocean. W e will mention among this little family the Manatee ( Manatus ) and the Duyongs ( Halicore ). The Manatees (Manatus), Fig. 23, have the body oblong, terminated by a simple fin. Their anterior fins are composed of five fingers, each composed of three joints, and of which some at least are furnished with flat and rounded nails, coarsely resembling those of a Man ; they have no posterior members. Their head, almost conical, is terminated in a fleshy muzzle, having, on its upper portion, very small nostrils. Their eyes are also small, and their upper lip is furnished with a moustache of stiff hairs. Their teats, placed on the stomach, become large and rounded during gestation and the suckling period. It is for this last, and also on account of the skill with which the Manatees sometimes make use of their fins for carrying their young, that these animals have been often called Mermaids (femmes-poissons) , or women of the sea, &c. These animals collect together in large troops. Their character is mild, affectionate, and sociable. The male, which is extremely attached to his female, does not desert her in the hour of danger, * Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1868, />41. f Syrtnia of De Blainville. OEDEE OF CETACEA. 95 but defends ber till bis death. Tbe young ones have no less tenderness for their mother. The fishermen know how to profit by the ties which unite all the members of the family. They try, above all, to capture first the females, because the males and the young ones follow them, to defend them or to share their fate. On the shallow weedy shores, round islands, at the mouths of rivers, which these innocent and mild animals frequent to feed on the sea- weed, are the places to look for the Manatees. The hunter waits for the moment when they come to the surface to breathe ; or else he sur- prises them in their sleep, floating with their muzzles above the surface of the water, in the current. When close he throws his harpoon. The wounded animal loses its blood ; this blood brings up the other Manatees to the assistance of the victim. At this fatal moment, some of them try to wrench out the murderous weapon, the others to bite through the cord which the wounded one is dragging along with it, thus affording the fishermen an opportunity to massacre the whole troop. The unselfish devotion of these animals leads them on to their destruction. The Manatees often leave the sea to go up rivers. For this 90 MAMMALIA. purpose they gather together in great troops. The strongest and oldest of the males leading the way, followed by the females, with the young placed in the middle. Their flesh is said to be agreeable ; for it resembles beef in the opinion of some, is like pork according to others. Their fat is sweet, and keeps for a long time without becoming putrid. What we have just said relates particularly to the American species, which is found at the mouth of the Orinoco, of the j Amazon river, and all the great water-courses of tropical South America. There exist other species, of which one inhabits Sene- gal, another the Bed Sea. The Duyong is distinguished from the Manatee by its flippers, which have no nails, and by some other peculiarities of structure which need not be mentioned here. We will, however, remark that the two external incisor teeth of the upper jaw are elongated ! into a sort of tusk. The habits of the Duyong are analogous to j those of the Manatee. Two species are known, one of which (. Halicore Duyong ) inhabits the Malayan seas chiefly, but is also met with on the west coast of Ceylon, in the backwaters of the Concan along the coast of Malabar, and occasionally on the shores of the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal ; the other (AT. australis) inhabits the shores of the northern part of Australia. Their flesh is held in high estimation, and the Australian Duyong is now eagerly hunted for the sake of the oil which it yields, to which the same medicinal virtues are attributed as to that derived from the livers of Cod-fish. OEDEE OF AMPHIBIA. Taken in tlie strictest sense of the word, the denomination of Amphibia (a/i^l, on all sides ; fiiog, life) ought to he applied only to those animals which can pass their existence in the air or in the water alternately : such as the Batracbians, which breathe, now in the water, by means of gills, and then in the air, by lungs. But this expression has been altered from its true meaning ; and what are now more especially called Amphibia are those Mam- malia which are essentially organized for aquatic life and which can, with difficulty, move about on the land : such are the Morse or Walrus, and the Seal.* The Morse or Walrus, and the various Seals, of which the order of Amphibia is composed, present a series of characteristics which correspond exactly with the mode of life which has devolved upon them. They have the body elongated, cylindrical, and pisci/orm — that is to say, representing that of a fish. Their limbs are very short, the extremities alone being visible : these are converted into fins by being provided with broad connecting webs. Their anterior extremities hang along the body, and act backwards and forwards, as in most aquatic quadrupeds ; on the contrary, the posterior extremities, stretched out in a horizontal and parallel direction, are arranged in such a manner as to strike the' water obliquely, f Their furs are composed of a woolly, compact coat, * An appellation for this group is Pinnigrada, proposed by the late Professor De Plain ville, who places it as one of the principal divisions of the ordinary Carnivora. — Ed. f These remarks apply more to the true Phocidce or Seals, than to the Sea-bears or the Walrus, both of which latter bring the hind-legs more forward when on land than the Seals. When on land, the Seals wriggle themselves along by means of the subcutaneous muscles of the body, making little use of their limbs while on a flat or sloping surface. But the movements of the Sea-bears are quadrupedal, and they not only make their way well upon land, but are excellent climbers of rocks. They are also much swifter under the water than are the true Seals, as may be commonly observed in the London Zoological Garden. The Walrus is far more H 98 MAMMALIA. the thickness and fineness of which increases with the severity of the climate they inhabit, and which is covered by rather coarse hairs lubricated with oil, the object of which is to prevent the water from penetrating to the skin. A thick layer of fat protects the body against the cold, more especially in those species which inhabit the extreme frigid regions. The Amphibia have the head rounded, the eyes large, the auditory conch rudimentary or null, the upper lip covered with a thick moustache. Their jaws have three sorts of teeth, and the brain is furrowed into numerous circumvolutions. Living in numerous troops, they feed on Fishes, Mollusks, Crustaceans, &c. They dive with great facility ; and although obliged to come to the surface to breathe they can remain a long while under water. This circumstance is explained by a peculiarity in their circulating apparatus. They are provided with vast venous reservoirs, in which the blood accumulates whilst the lungs are inactive. The animal is not suffocated on that account, however ; for asphyxia, or suffocation, is brought on by the stoppage of the circulation of the blood, as soon as respiration is suspended; but the sinus provides this circulation in the pulmonary cells whilst the animal is under- neath the surface. Owing to this precaution of nature, the Amphibia can wander freely about in the depths of the ocean in search of their food ; it is only when the blood overruns their venous reser- voirs that they find it necessary to remount to the surface to breathe. As their members are badly fitted for locomotion on land [in most instances], the Amphibia only leave the water when they want to sleep, to give birth to or suckle their young. Under such circumstances, when they are surprised on the shore, they are quite at the mercy of their assailants ; for they are equally incapable of escaping from, and of resisting those who attack them. One must not be surprised, then, that considerable quan- tities of these animals are destroyed every year, and that the unwieldy and awkward on land, where its movements forcibly remind the spectator of the wrigglings of a gentle or fly -maggot ; hut it makes considerable use of its hind-legs, by bringing them forward and thus taking hold of the ground ; whereas, those of the Seals are more directed backwards. When in the water, and about to dive, both the Walrus and the Sea-bears show their hacks above the surface, like a Porpoise, but this is never observed of the true Seals. — Ed. OKDEK OF AMPHIBIA. 99 products they furnish (oil, fur, leather, ivory) are great induce- ments for expeditions to be fitted out for their capture. The Amphibia do not inhabit intertropical regions, and they increase more and more in number in proportion as one advances towards the poles. They are found on the coasts of Europe — in the North Seas, the British Channel, the Mediterranean ; in the Black Sea they are abundant. Known to the Greeks and Romans, the Amphibia gave rise to the stories about Tritons and Nereids. The Amphibia comprise but two families : that of the Morse or Walrus, and that of the Seal. The Morse Family, Trichechidce. — The only species of this family is the Morse or Walrus, commonly called Sea-horse, or Sea-cow, Trichechus rosmarus (Fig. 24). This animal measures from 3J metres to 4 metres in length, by 3 metres in circum- ference ; the assertions of travellers, who pretend to have seen them of from 6 to 7 metres, must be regarded as exaggerations. The Morse is covered with short scanty hair of a dark reddish colour ; its muzzle is large and puffed out at the upper part, and is terminated in a snout, in which are the nostrils, which are turned upwards. Altogether, it is a creature of a massive and unwieldy appearance. The Morse is characterized by two powerful canine teeth, which, descending vertically from its upper jaw, project somewhat out- wards, and constitute formidable weapons. These tusks attain to as many as 65 centimetres in length, and to a proportionate breadth. The full-grown Morse has no incisive nor canine teeth on the under jaw ; but when they are young they have two small incisive teeth. The molar teeth, to the number of eight in each jaw, are suited for crushing and grinding hard substances, and act in the same way in which a pestle does on a mortar. The Morse inhabits exclusively the arctic polar regions : it is especially common in the neighbourhood of Spitzbergen, of Nova Zembla, and on the coasts of Siberia. It disports itself with ease in the water, feeding on shelled Mollusks (especially of the genus My a), which it detaches from the submerged soil by means of its tusks, which act like garden rakes. [Its gullet is too small to swallow a fish larger than a Herring, and it is now certain that this animal h 2 Fig. 24. — Morses or Walruses ( Tricheckus rosmarus). ORDER OE AMPHIBIA. 101 is not piscivorous, but subsists mainly as described.] Its long* canine teeth, are, above all, very useful to it in hoisting itself up on to the shores, or over the ice which is in its way ; they serve it also as points of support, or fulcra , and assist it to advance, by drawing itself along on its anterior members. It often mounts upon floating icebergs, on which it will drift about for hours together. The female brings forth in winter one or two young ones, which she tends with solicitude and defends with energy. Naturally mild and inoffensive, the Morse becomes very bold when it is attacked and wounded. Under such circumstances it will fight with the utmost fury, and shows its desire for vengeance by all its actions. If on land, and consequently incapable of pursuing its enemies, its feeling of helplessness makes it utter furious cries ; it tears up the soil with its tusks, and attacks everything it meets with on its way. But to avoid being injured by it, after it is wounded, all that is necessary is for the hunters to keep at a respectful distance. In the sea, on the contrary, where it can dis- play all its activity, the Morse is rather to be feared ; so much the more so on account of the strict union in which it lives with its fellows, who never fail to come in great numbers to help any of their companions which are threatened with danger. They sur- round the boat, and try to sink it by running it through with their tusks, or capsize it by bearing with their whole weight upon its sides. Sometimes, indeed, they even try to board boats, much to the disgust of the sailors, who have no idea of keeping such company. If the boats row off, they follow them for a long while, and only stop when they are quite out j of sight. The Morse has to struggle, not only against Man, but also against | the Bears which inhabit the same latitudes. Although the White : Bears are provided with formidable means of attack, they do not S always come out of the combat victorious. The deep wounds which | they carry away with them after their battles with the Morse sufficiently attest the valour and power of the animals which they wished to make their victims. Formerly the Morses existed in such great quantities in | certain parts of the icy Arctic Ocean, and were at the same time ; so bold, that they allowed themselves to be approached by bands 102 MAMMALIA. of sailors without attempting to escape ; so that in half a day pro- digious numbers of them could he destroyed. Gmelin states that some Englishmen killed from 700 to 800 of them in the space of six hours, in 1705 ; and, three years afterwards, 900 in the space of seven hours. In 1640, a captain of a ship, of the name of Kykyrez, killed so many, that his fortune was made in one single campaign. This is how the Walruses were obtained. The crew made a descent upon the shore, and cut olf their retreat while they lay stretched out unsuspectingly at some distance ; having done so, they advanced and pierced them through with their lances. A fearful massacre followed ; as the carcasses fell, they were heaped up in a long line, and thus formed a sort of embankment, against which rig 25. — A massacre of Morses. those which were trying to escape came and exhausted their strength ; the whole troop were thus knocked down and killed. How- a- days the same manoeuvre very rarely succeeds. Having learnt a lesson from experience, the Morses keep together in bands more or less numerous on the rocks and icebergs ; they go but a very small distance from the sea, so as to be able to plunge into it on the least alarm, and they place sentinels during their sleep, so as not to be taken by surprise. Generally, it is necessary to take to the boats, to row after them, and harpoon them in the water. But, as we have said, this operation is extremely dan- gerous, for when wounded they become furious ; they surround the boat in which are their pursuers, and in their desperate efforts try to capsize it (Fig. 26). It takes many a boat-hook, harpoon and gun, adroitly used, to repel the assailants. Fig. 26.— Chasing Walruses. 104 MAMMALIA. Morses supply diverse products of considerable importance in trade ; it is for this reason that sucb deadly war is waged against them. In the first place their tusks provide us with a grainy ivory, harder and whiter than that of the Elephant. These tusks detach themselves when the animal’s head has been boiled in a cauldron of water. An oil of a better quality than that of the Whale is extracted from their fat ; each Morse produces half a ton of it. Lastly, their skins, properly cured and tanned, become very thick and substantial leather, which is employed in carriage making. In the middle ages, cords and cables, of a solidity which was proof against everything, were made of this leather. Albert le Grand, in the fourteenth century, relates that this skin had a great commercial value in the market of Cologne. The Morse was unknown to antiquity. The Seal Family, Phociclce. — Seals have considerable analogy of form to the Morse ; but they have not the long tusks which characterize the latter. Their heads are rounded, and very much resemble that of a Dog ; their eyes are large, bright, and very soft. They can shut their nostrils when they plunge, and thus prevent the water from running into the back of their mouths. Their ears, which consist generally of but simple openings, without any exterior conch, are endowed with the same property. Their mouths are furnished, from top to bottom, with three sorts of teeth — incisive, canine, and molar. The molars differ little from those of the Carnivora ; but among these we do not find, as we do in other Carnivora, those molar teeth called tuberculous . Of their members one only sees the extremities, composed of five very long toes, joined together by a broad membrane. Their hind feet, arranged side by side, form a sort of hollow fin, the centre of which is occupied by a short tail. The spine is so very flexible that they can set up on end the anterior part of their body nearly vertically, the hinder portion remaining horizontal. The large size of their brain leads one. to conclude that they have a high degree of intelligence. These animals’ senses, how- ever, do not appear to be very much developed. According to the observations of Cuvier, their sense of sight is the best. Seals see pretty well for some distance, but too great a quantity of light dazzles them ; and so they have the pupil contractile, like OEDEE OE AMPHIBIA. 105 Cats. [In the dark, their eye produces brilliant light, as do also those of the Sea-bears.] Their hearing must he very weak, since the organs of this sense have no exterior conch for catching the sounds ; the sense of smell does not seem to he very acute. The touch is exercised apparently by means of the long and hard hairs which adorn the upper lip ; for they abut upon nerves of a remarkable size. As for their taste, it is altogether rudimentary, if one judges of it by the gluttony of these Amphibia. They often swallow their prey whole, without chewing it, although they can only do so after most energetic efforts. When it is too big to he devoured all at once, they divide it into many morsels, by the action of their teeth or nails, and swallow without taking the trouble of masti- cation. The voice of the Common Seal, Phoca vitulina (Fig. 27), consists of a sort of bark, analogous to that of a Dog. When it is irritated it makes a noise like an angry Cat, and shows its teeth. Certain species pronounce distinctly the syllable pa , many times in succes- sion. This is enough for the speculators in wonderful exhibitions to hang out, as a bait for the credulity of marvel-hunters, a notice that within is to be seen an extraordinary animal, a marine monster, which says papa and mamma as well as you or I could do. Seals have almost the same habits as Walruses ; but they are not confined, as are the last-named Amphibia, to the frozen seas of the north, although they are more numerous, and generally stronger there than anywhere else. They [or rather Sea-bears] abound equally in the southern seas. They are to be met with on all the coasts of Europe, and even in certain lakes or interior seas, such as the Caspian Sea, the lake Baikal, and, lastly, the lakes Ladoga and Onega (Russia in Europe), if we are to believe certain authors. They live in large troops in the creeks, the bays, and in the midst of the archipelagoes full of rocks. All the species do not choose the same sites for their resort ; some prefer sandy shores sheltered from the winds, others select those rocks which are constantly beaten against by the waves, while again some choose a beach thickly covered with sea- weed. They love, above all, the tempest, the roaring of the waves, the whistling of the wind, the mighty voice of the thunder, and the vivid flashings of the lightning. They delight to see, rolling 106 MAMMALIA, along in a sombre sky, the great black clouds which predict torrents of rain. Then it is that they leave the sea in crowds, and come and play about on the shore, in the midst of the fury of the elements. They are at home in the tempest, it is in these crises of nature that they give full play to all their faculties, and to all the activity of which they are capable. When the weather is fine they fall asleep, and resign themselves lazily to the dolce far niente. Seals feed principally on fishes, which they catch cleverly ; to Fig. 27.— Seals ( Phoca vitulince). these some of them add Mollusks, Crustaceans, and, when they have the chance, some say aquatic birds. Some grave authors affirm that it is their custom, before they take to the water, to swallow a quantity of pebbles, which serve them as ballast, as in a ship ; this excess of weight they disgorge when they come on shore. If this is not true, it is at least a happy thought : se non e vero, e bene trovato. [At all events, such pebbles are found in the stomach of the Walrus.] it is not astonishing that in this position, and seen from a distance, ORDER OE AMPHIBIA. 107 they were considered by tbe ancients as extraordinary beings, whose dnty it was to accompany Neptune in procession as he passed through his liquid domain. When they want to land, they choose a place haying a gentle slope, and hooking on with hands and teeth to any rough places near them, they advance with difficulty, but more rapidly than the imperfections of their organs of pro- pulsion when applied to locomotion on land would have led us to suppose [principally, indeed, by means of the subcutaneous muscles of the trunk, and making no use of their limbs]. They hoist themselves very cleverly on to floating icebergs, on which they appear to love to drift. They are very tenacious of their rights, which they fight for most energetically. From the moment a family has installed itself on a rock or on a block of ice, it will not allow any other individual of the troop to come and interfere with it ; the male takes upon himself to repel every invasion on his domicile. Hence arise furious combats, which only end in the death of the legitimate proprietor or the flight of the aggressor. When there is very little room at their disposal, one sees many families keeping on the same rock or iceberg, and living on it in perfect harmony ; but they always leave between each other a certain space, and rigidly keep to that part which constitutes their lot. Like the Morse, Seals place sentinels to watch during their sleep over the safety of the whole troop. As soon as a Man or a band of White Bears appears, the sentinels give vent to long-pro- tracted howlings, and the whole company precipitates itself into the sea. [These animals mostly breed in caverns which have a seaward face, and the young are remarkably large at birth, and are then clad with a sort of fleece, which is very soon shed, indeed sometimes even before birth. They follow their dam from the first, and appear to swim and dive with equal facility.] The most effective way of killing Seals is to strike them on the nose with a club ; if they are attacked with pointed arms they must be speared very deeply to put their lives in danger. When they see themselves surrounded, they defend themselves courageously, but with little success. In their fury, if opportunity offers, they break the arms of their enemies between their powerful jaws. 108 MAMMALIA. A Seal hunt differs in its details in nothing from a Morse hunt. They are harpooned from boats, or they are pursued on the icebergs, and killed with axes and pikes (Fig. 28). All the inhabitants of the shores of the polar seas pursue Seals, and destroy innumerable quantities of them. They find in these animals precious resources against the rigour and desolation of ORDER OE AMPHIBIA. 109 tlie hyperborean climate. For the Greenlanders especially, the Seal is of universal utility. It yields them nearly all they want, and renders life endurable in the cold country which they inhabit. The Greenlander eats the flesh of the Seal, and is contented with it, although it is tough and has a disagreeable smell. He drinks its oil, or lights his hut with it. With its skin he makes clothes, wrappers, tents, and canoes ; or else cuts it up into straps and thongs. Its muscles and tendons are con- verted into thread for sewing, and into strings for hows. Its blood even, mixed with other substances, forms a sort of soup. Everything, even to the membranes in the interior of the body, is turned to account ; properly dried, these serve, owing to their transparency, to close the openings which admit a little light to the Greenlander’s wretched hovel. And so the only occupation, as we may say, of the Greenlanders, is Seal hunting. From their youngest days they are trained to this exercise, which is for them a matter of life and death. Sometimes they launch out to sea, in their fragile skin boats, and harpoon their prey when it comes to the surface to breathe ; at other times they envelop themselves in Seal skins, stretch them- selves on the shore, and endeavour to attract some unwary Seal by their deceitful similitude to itself. The Esquimaux take the Seal also in the following manner. They make a hole in the ice, and the moment one of these animals presents itself to breathe the air at the improvised skylight, they seize it (Fig. 29). The English and the Americans of the United States are the only people who organize Seal hunting on a large scale. They fit out annually sixty ships, of from two hundred and fifty to three hundred tons each, for this purpose. The principal object of these expeditions is to obtain the oil with which the flesh of this aquatic Mammifer is saturated. The bodies, cut in pieces, are thrown into boilers set up on the beach. When the oil is separated by fusion, it is put into barrels, and exported to Europe or to America, where it is sold at the rate of eighty francs a barrel. Each Seal supplies about half a barrel of oil [much more or less, however, according to the species]. For a very small profit, the peasants on the coast and in the isles 110 MAMMALIA. of the Baltic brave every year the greatest dangers in pursuit of the Seal. When the ice is breaking up, five, six, or sometimes fewer, embark in a canoe, with a supply of provisions and weapons. They run the risk of seeing their boat crushed between the masses of ice, or of being carried away on an iceberg, on which they will probably die of cold and hunger. A good many Norwegians perish each year on these dangerous expeditions. The people who live on the north coast of Scotland hunt the Seals in a strange manner, which is not without its dangers. They Fig. 29. — Esquimaux watching for a Seal. know that these Amphibia retire into vast caverns, the entrance to which is generally very narrow, to give birth to and to suckle their young. In October or November, the hardy fishermen, towards the middle of the night, penetrate into these sombre grottoes, to the end of which they advance, in light skiffs. Then they light torches and shout loudly. At this sudden illumination, and these strange noises, the Seals, howling loudly, leave their retreat in the greatest disorder. Their numbers are so great that their pursuers would OEDEE OF AMPHIBIA. Ill be crushed to death if they did not take the precaution of at once ranging themselves against the sides of the grotto, so as to allow the Seals to escape; but the principal crowd having passed, the hunters fall upon the laggards and kill them by striking them over the nose with cudgels. There is danger, in these sort of expeditions, of a gust of wind blowing out their torches ; in that case they might perish, lost in one of these dark caverns. The Seal is endowed with so many remarkable faculties, that it seems quite suited to become one of our domestic animals ; and so it is perhaps surprising that man has not yet thought of training it to fish for him, as he has done with the Otter. Its gentleness, its sociability, and, above all, its intelligence, which is almost equal to that of the Dog, would ensure it a high place in the affections of our race. There are numerous examples on record of Seals which, having been tamed when very young, becoming so much attached to their masters as to follow them wherever they went, and returning to them even after they had purposely been left far from home. They give very little trouble : a basin filled with water in which they can bathe, and a hut with some straw in it on which they may repose, are sufficient to keep them in a good state of health. They must be fed on fish. Only, as they devour an enormous quantity of this food, the cost of keeping them is the greatest obstacle to their ever being domesticated. It is strange, that when they are accustomed to one sort of fish, they will not eat any other, and rather die of hunger than consent to change their diet. Seals are divided into numerous genera and species, peculiar to different climates. Let us examine rapidly some of the prin- cipal. The Common Seal (Plioca vitulina ), vulgarly named Sea-calf, inhabits Europe, and measures about 1 metre in length. It is this one that has been the most studied. The Atak, or Greenland Seal (P. groenlandicus) , is double the size of the Common Seal. It is found also on the coasts of Nova Zembla and of the White Sea, but in winter only in the regions of the last-mentioned. The White-bellied Seal (P. monachus) is found in the Medi- terranean, especially on the borders of the Adriatic Sea. It varies 112 MAMMALIA. in size from 2 metres 25 centimetres to 3 metres 25 centimetres. It is one of the most intelligent. M. Boitard says that he saw one, which had been in captivity for two years, and which, let loose in ponds and even in large rivers, came to its master when called. The Capncin Seal (. Phoca cristata, Gmel.), of about 2\ metres in length, is thus named because it has on its head, in the adult state, a sort of movable bag or hood, with which it covers its muzzle when it chooses ; it can also distend its nostrils in such a manner as to give them the appearance of a bladder. It is found in the waters of North America and of Greenland. The Sea-lion ( Otaria jubata , Gray) is generally 4 metres in length, but sometimes measures 8, according to Permetty. The male has a thick mane on his neck, which hangs over his shoulders, and from which he derives his name. This Seal inhabits Kamtschatka, the Aleutian and Kurile Islands, and the coasts of California. The Sea- wolf,* or Phoque XJrigne [Phoca Uranice, Less.), is pecu- liar to the coasts of Chili. The inhabitants of this country turn its skin to a singular use. They hermetically close all the openings in it, then distend it with air, and, placing many of these floating bodies side by side, they arrange above them cross-bars of wood, covered over with reeds or straw ; the whole forming a raft, which is exceedingly buoyant. Not far from Chili, in the archipelago adjoining the Straits of Magellan, is found the Sea-elephant, or Phoque- d-trompe [Phoca proboscidea, Desm.), the largest of all the Seals. It is as much as from 8 to 10 metres in length, by 5 to 6 in circumference. In the male, the nose is prolonged into a sort of trunk, membranous, erectile, from 40 to 50 centimetres in length, and which serves him for warding off the blows aimed at his nose. This species supplies an enormous quantity of oil ; the weight of its flesh alone is a thousand kilogrammes.! This enormous amphibious animal is very indolent, when it is on land it allows itself to be easily approached and massacred. The Sea-bear is common in the latitudes of Kamtschatka. Its size varies from 1 metre 25 centimetres to 2 metres. Its brownish fur is very fine, very soft, and very highly valued in * Otarie Guerin of Q,uoy and Gaimard.— Ed. f 2,250 lbs. ORDER OE AMPHIBIA. 113 China, whither it is exported at great prices. For this reason the Russians wage deadly war against it, which will end perhaps in the complete extinction of the species. The Sea-bears (. Phoca TIrsina , Linn.) are distinguished from the preceding species by haying an external ear. They are peculiar to the southern seas, and do not in general attain to great dimensions. i ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. The greater number of the animals of which this order is composed are remarkable for the thickness and hardness of their skins, and it is from this characteristic that they derive their name (ndyrig, thick, and Sspya, skin). In nearly all of them the toes are rendered motionless by a horny covering which surrounds them, called the hoof, which prevents them from seizing objects, and entirely blunts in this part of their bodies the sense of touch. Their digestive organs are not arranged for rumination, which distinguishes them from the order with which we are going to be occupied when we have done with the Pachydermata. Lastly, they never have on their foreheads either antlers or horns, which distinguishes them equally from the Puminants. It is in the order of Pachydermata that we find the largest of terrestrial animals. The Pachydermata are divided into three families : the Elephants or Proboscidea , the Ordinary Pachydermata , and the Soliped or Solidungulated Pachydermata * The Family of Elephants, or Proboscidea. — The Elephants, or Proboscidea (from the Latin word proboscis, trunk), are the largest of terrestrial animals, as the Whales are the largest of aquatic animals. If size and strength conferred the right of dominion, these two creatures would be able to divide between them the empire of the world. The proportions of the Elephant are clumsy, its body is thick and bulky, its gait heavy and awkward ; but its physiognomy is imposing and noble. These giants of creation have a head * Professor Owen has arranged the two latter into those with an odd number of toes, Perissodactyla , and those with an even number of toes, Artiodactyla , which latter seem to grade (by the intervention of extinct genera) into the Euminantia. The Solipeds form a division of Perissodactyla. — Ed. OEDEE OE PACHYDEEMATA. 115 which is remarkable for its enormous development of skull. Of all the lower animals, the Asiatic Elephant is the one whose head has the greatest vertical height in proportion to its horizontal length. However, the enormous rising produced at the upper, temporal, and posterior part of the skull, is not the result of great development of the brain ; it arises simply from there being a quantity of broad cells, hollowed out in the substance of the bone. The volume of the brain is thus much inferior to that of the skull. On the lateral and upper portion of this enormous head are two immense thin ears, which extend upwards, backwards, and downwards. These the animal moves and flaps about at will ; they also serve as a fan against the heat. The eye is small, for its globe is not a third of the size of the Bull’s eye, in com- parison to the magnitude of the two animals. The mouth is also small, and almost entirely hidden behind the tusks and the base of the trunk. This trunk, an organ peculiar to the Elephants, is merely the nose prolonged in an immoderate length, in the shape of a tube, and terminating in the openings of the nostrils. This prodigious nasal organ performs the duties of arm and hand.* The Elephant’s trunk is, at the same time, an organ of touch, of smell, of prehension, and likewise a formidable weapon. In the ordinary actions of life, it is an instrument that performs all the functions of a hand. It seizes and picks up the smallest objects, as, for instance, a piece of money or a straw ; it can uncork a bottle, or fire off a pistol. In the natural state, the Elephant makes use of it for conveying food to its mouth ; for lifting heavy weights, and putting them on its back ; for drinking, by filling it with water, and then letting the water pour down its throat. With this instrument it defends itself, and attacks others ; it seizes its enemies, entwines them in its folds, squeezes them, crushes them, and tosses them into the air, or hurls them to the ground, after- wards to be trampled under its broad feet. The structure of this marvellous organ (the trunk) is very I remarkable. It is a conical tube, of an irregular form, very elongated, truncated and funnel-shaped at the end. The upper side of this trunk is convex, and fluted along its breadth ; the lower side is fiat. It is provided with two longitudinal rows of * In the Hindustani language, the Elephant is Hat'hi , from hat, a hand, i.e., the creature with a hand. — Ed. i 2 116 MAMMALIA. little eminences, which, resemble the feet [or, rather, not the feet, but the pro-legs] of Silkworms. The first portion of the trunk is situated at the point which forms the extremity of the nose in other animals ; it serves it in lieu of a nose, since the interior side serves as a lip, and the nostrils are placed within ; in fact, this organ is hollow in the interior, and a partition divides it into two channels. At the point at which these channels or pipes touch the bony walls which terminate them, and which contain the organ of scent, they are provided with a little cartilaginous and elastic valve, which the animal can open and shut at will. This arrangement prevents the liquids used as drink from entering into the organ specially intended for the sense of smelling. Between the internal channels of the trunk and its external membrane are implanted numerous longitudinal, transversal, and radiating muscles, the contraction or dilation of which bring about or cause the quickest, strongest, and most varied movements and inflections. The trunk is terminated in a concavity, in the indentation of which are the orifices of the nostrils. The upper part of the border is prolonged into a sort of finger, which is about five inches long. This extremity seizes hold of objects with so much delicacy, that it can pick up a grain of wheat, a fly, or a straw. The Elephant’s tusks are nothing but the incisive teeth pro- digiously elongated. Turned obliquely downwards, forwards, out- wards, and ultimately upwards. They are sometimes more than two metres and a half in length, and weigh as many as from fifty to sixty kilogrammes. In the females they are sometimes very slightly elongated, and do not project beyond the lips.* The tusks serve the Elephant for defensive and offensive weapons. They protect the trunk, which curls up between them, when the animal traverses woods in which there are many thorns, prickles, and thick brushwood. The Elephant also uses them for putting aside and holding down the branches, when, with its trunk, it is about to pluck off the tops of leafy boughs. The ivory, which is so much used in trade, and which is so * In the Indian species they are indeed wanting in the females, so also, either one or both of them, in not a few of the males, which are styled Maknas, while the j tusked males are called Dent’halas. — Ed. OEDEE OE PACHYDEEMATA. 117 remarkable for the fineness of its grain, whiteness, hardness, and for the beautiful polish that can be given to it, is principally obtained from the Elephant. Elephant ivory is easily recognised by its peculiar structure. On the transverse section of it, one remarks streaks going in a circle, from the centre towards the circumference, and forming lozenges in crossing each other. Ivory has been employed by Man as an ornament since the most ancient times. Solomon had a throne of ivory covered with gold, and the interiors of many opulent houses in J erusalem were adorned with it. Homer speaks of ivory being employed as an obj ect of ornament. The statue of the Olympian Jupiter, made by the Greek sculptor, Phidias, was of ivory and gold. Ivory was, among the ancients, of a very great price ; and the Elephant’s tusks figured only in the most important public ceremonies. The Elephant has no canine teeth. Its molar teeth are com- posed of a certain number of plates of a bony substance, covered with enamel, and bound together by a cortical or barky matter. The manner in which the teeth succeed each other in the Ele- phant is well worthy of attention. In other Mammalia, it is ver- tically that the second teeth succeed to the milk teeth. But in Elephants they come forwards from behind, in such a way that, as a molar is worn out, it is pushed forwards by the one which is to replace it. The same molar can thus be replaced as many as eight times. The tusks, however, are only renewed once. The enormous head, the different parts of which we have just examined, joins on to a neck so short that its movements are very circumscribed and very difficult. The back is arched or bowed, and the rump depressed. The tail is short and thin. The fore legs have no collar-bone, and seem to be massive pillars placed under the body to support its heavy mass. As with the hind legs also, their bones are placed in a position per- pendicular to the body and to the ground, which gives the animal a clumsy and awkward appearance. The fore legs are moreover longer than the hind legs, which are very short, and of which the leg properly so called, and perhaps the knee, are alone disengaged from the body. Under the feet is a sort of callous sole, thick enough to prevent the hoofs from touching the ground. The hoofs, to the number of from three to five, are shapeless, and do 118 MAMMALIA. not even show the number of the toes (five on each foot), which remain encrusted and hidden under the skin. This shapeless, colossal, and heavy body is covered with a skin, callous, full of cracks and crevices, very thick, of a dirty blackish grey colour, having a few hairs sprinkled over here and there, and which are almost invisible, except on the back, on the eye- lids, and on the tail, which is terminated by a tuft.* Elephants live in the hottest parts of Africa and of Asia. Revel- ling in forests and swamps, they keep together in troops more or less numerous, which are either led by an old male, or very commonly by an old female. Their food consists of herbs, roots, and grains. They often seek their food in cultivated fields, where they do considerable damage. Tame Elephants are very fond of bananas and cocoa-nuts ; but their usual diet consists of hay, straw, rice, raw or cooked, bread, and the leaves of trees. It is remarkable that they are easily accustomed to drink wine, brandy, and all sorts of spirituous liquors. To support this enormous mass, these animals require to swallow a great quantity of food. In India, generally about fifty kilo- grammes of rice a day are given to one ; to this is added, to keep the animal in good health, a certain quantity of grass or fresh leaves, and especially sugar-cane tops when obtainable. The Elephant which was brought to Versailles in the time of Louis XIV. used to eat eighty pounds of bread a day and two bucketsful of soup ; it drank twelve pints of wine, and consumed besides a great quantity of cakes which the visitors brought to it. The pace at which Elephants walk is much more rapid than the clumsiness of their appearance would lead one to suppose. These ■; animals can, according to certain authors, do their twenty or twenty-five leagues a day. They also swim well. It was for a long time asserted that Elephants could not lie down, and that they always slept standing. It is true that among Elephants, as among Horses, are found some that can sleep stand- ing, and only rarely lie down ; but generally they sleep lying on their side, like the majority of other quadrupeds. The Elephant mother carries her young one twenty months. * The fossil Mammoth Elephant was well provided with hoth wool and long bristly hair, as protection from the cold climates in which it chiefly lived. At this present time, an Indian Elephant, which has now lived for many years in the elevated region of Tibet, has become well clad with hair. — Ed. ■ Fig. 30. — Asiaiio Elephants (Eiiptias indtcus). 120 MAMMALIA. On coming into the world, the young Pachyderm is about a metre high. It enjoys the use of all its organs, and is strong enough to follow its parents. When it wants to suck, it turns its trunk oyer backwards, and takes the milk from its mother’s teat with its mouth, and not with its trunk, as certain authors haye affirmed. The suckling period lasts for about two years. The Elephant is endowed with yery great intelligence, of which we will giye some proofs. It understands justice — that is to say, it renders good for good and eyil for evil. The mahout (groom and driver) of an Elephant broke, out of spite, one day, a cocoa-nut on the head of his beast. Next day, the Elephant, passing along a street, perceived some cocoa-nuts exposed for sale in front of a shop. He took one in his trunk, and gave his driver such a severe blow with it on his forehead that he fell dead on the spot. A young man who had amused himself by offering a piece of sugar a great many times to an Elephant, and by as often with- drawing it, at last gave it to another Elephant. Offended at this teazing, the former seized the young man with its trunk, inflicted some severe bruises on his face, and tore his clothes to pieces. The keepers were obliged to run to the assistance of this imprudent fellow, and make the furious animal relax his hold of him. An Elephant was in the habit of elongating his trunk and put- ting it in at the windows of the houses of Acheen (in the north of Sumatra), as if to ask for fruits or roots, for the inhabitants used to take a pleasure in giving them to it. One morning, it pre- sented the extremity of its trunk at the window of a tailor, who, instead of giving the Elephant what it wanted, pricked its trunk with his needle. The animal appeared to bear this insult with patience. It went quietly on down to the river, whither the mahout, or driver, led it each morning to wash. On this occasion it stirred up the mud with one of its front feet, and drew into its trunk a great quantity of this dirty water. When it was returning home through the street in which the tailor’s shop was situated, it advanced towards the window, and spouted the water in on him with such prodigious force that the tailor and his workmen were pitched off their shop-board and struck with terror. Buffon relates the following trait : — “ A painter wished to make a drawing of the Elephant of the OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 121 menagerie of Versailles in an extraordinary attitude, which was with its trunk elevated in the air and its mouth wide open. The painter’s servant, to make it remain in this attitude, kept throwing fruit into its mouth, hut oftener by pretending to do so. The Elephant was indignant at this treatment, and as if it knew that the painter’s desire of making a drawing of it was the cause of its being thus annoyed, instead of revenging itself on the servant, it addressed itself to the master, and discharged at him, through his trunk, a quantity of water, with which it spoiled the paper on which the artist was drawing.” We read in the Decade Philosopkique ,* that an Elephant treated in the same way a sentinel who wished to prevent the public from feeding it. Still further, that the female of the same Elephant, being as angry as the male, seized hold of the gun of the rigid overseer, twisted it round and round in its trunk, smashed it under foot, and only gave it back to him when it was thoroughly de- stroyed. As the Elephant is conscious of its own strength, it takes every precaution so that its heavy mass may not harm creatures that are weaker than itself. If it passes through a crowd, it opens a passage for itself with its trunk, and gently pressing forward its fore limbs, in such a manner as to hurt no one. Dr. Franklin says that he has witnessed in the Elephant an attachment for children. “ I have myself,” says he, “ seen in India the wife of a mahout confide the care of a very young child to one of these gigantic creatures. I was very much amused by observing its sagacity, and the delicate attentions this huge nurse lavished on the little thing entrusted to it. The Elephant undertook its task in earnest. The child, which like many other children, did not at all like to remain long in the same position, and wanted to be noticed, set to work and cried the moment it was left to itself. > Sometimes it got in between the animal’s legs, or became entangled in the branches of the tree on the leaves of which the Elephant 1 was feeding. The animal on these occasions moved the child and disentangled it from the branches with wonderful tenderness, either by raising it with its trunk, or by moving out of its way the obstacles which might interfere with its movements.” f The Elephant is extremely touchy. Here is a trait related by * Tome xxii. p. 164. + Not an uncommon sight in India. — Ed. 122 MAMMALIA. the same Dr. Franklin, for the truth of which we must hold him responsible. The master of the old menagerie in Exeter ’Change, named Pidcock, had for some years been in the habit of offering to his Elephant every evening a glass of spirituous liquor. The animal seemed to attach great importance to this favour, for it drank its glass with much relish, as indeed nearly every Elephant does. Pidcock always handed the first glass to the Elephant, and then took one himself. One evening he changed his mind, and apostrophised the animal thus, “ You have been helped first long •enough, it is now my turn to drink before you.” His friend the Elephant took this in bad part ; it refused to be helped second, and never drank its master’s health again in its daily libations. The Elephants which are exhibited in different places in theatrical representations give proofs of a most varied intelligence. They move over the boards with singular lightness. On a stage crowded with actors they avoid any blunders which might interfere with the stage arrangements ; they advance with measured paces, keeping time with the music. They distinguish one actor from another. If, for example, they have to place the crown on the head of the lawful king, they do not go and place it on the head of an usurper. There was in Paris, in 1867, an Elephant perform- ing at the circus of the Boulevard du Prince-Eugene, which went through a great many gymnastic exercises and feats of address which gave one a high idea of its docility and intelligence. This creature, which was called 1? Elephant ascensioniste, went so far as to balance its heavy mass on a tight-rope, like Blondin. This is a feat which many a man could not accomplish.* Some Elephants possess a taste for music. In 1813, the musicians of Paris met together and gave a concert to the male Elephant, which was then in the Jardin des Plantes. The animal showed great pleasure at hearing sung 0 ma tendre Musette ! But the air of La charmante Gabrielle pleased it so much that it beat time by making its trunk oscillate from right to left, and by rocking its enormous body from side to side. It even uttered a few sounds more or less in harmony with those produced by the * The African Elephant was trained to do this in the time of ancient Borne ; and for anecdotes of the docility and sagacity of Elephants consult iElian’s work on The Nature of Animals , hook ii. chap. 11. The passage is translated by the late Sir J. Emerson Tennent in his work entitled Ceylon . — Ed, c ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 123 musicians. Grand symphonies were less to its taste. It seemed to understand melody more easily than scientific harmony. I know more than one man who is an Elephant in this respect. When the concert was oyer, the sensible Pachyderm approached one of the musicians, who, by his performance on the horn, had particularly affected it. The animal knelt down before him, caressed him with its trunk, and ex- pressed to him in all sorts of pretty ways the pleasure which it had felt in listen- ing to him. After these general con- siderations on the organi- zation and the habits of Elephants, we will pass on to consider more particu- larly the different species of this family. Those now existing, however, are only two in number, the Ele- phant of Asia and the Ele- phant of Africa.* The Asiatic Elephant at present inhabits nearly the whole of the Indian regions, inclusive of Siam, the Bur- mese Empire, and India properly so called. It is found also in the island of Ceylon, in Sumatra, and there are some in the great island of Borneo. Its head is broad, flattened on the front of its forehead, swelling out on its sides ; its ears are much smaller than {Rose of the African Elephant, and differ a little in their propor- * The Sumatran Elephant is regarded as a peculiar species by some naturalists, hut the late Dr. Falconer has shown clearly that it is one and the same with that of continental Asia. We have lately seen a living Sumatran Elephant in the Zoological G-arden at Rotterdam, and assuredly could not perceive any difference from the Indian Elephant. We have had many opportunities of studying the variations observable in the latter species, of which, upon one occasion, we examined 294, which were ranged for the inspection by the local head of the military commissariat. — -Ed. 124 MAMMALIA. tions. Its colour is dull earthy, approaching to brown. Albinos occur rarely, and are greatly prized by the monarchs of Ava and Siam, who maintain them in regal state, lodge them in their palaces, and have them served magnificently by a numerous retinue. Until lately, the Asiatic Elephants were, in modern times, the only ones that were domesticated.* It must be observed, too, that those which are employed are not born in captivity. They are wild Elephants that have been tamed. These animals live always in troops. Those which are met with isolated from the others have been driven out of the band, and are commonly known as “ rogue Elephants” to the inhabitants of India and Ceylon. If it had not been for the presence of Man upon the earth, the Elephant would possibly have become the lord of creation. But j Man keeps it in subjection. He has succeeded in appropriating this powerful and intelligent servant to his use. The following is the way most commonly used in Asia for getting possession of the j wild Elephants, and for domesticating them. When the inhabitants of India, of Siam, &c., have discovered i a troop of Elephants, or only two or three little groups of these animals, which can easily be gathered together, the natives of the j neighbouring districts get together and surround them. Pro- vided with fire-arms, drums, trumpets, and fusees — in a word, with everything calculated to terrify — they form a circle round them, and, little by little, drive them towards a cunningly pre- j pared enclosure, the entrance of which, adorned with the leafy branches of trees, resembles a road through the woods. This i avenue becomes narrower and narrower, and ultimately comes to an end in an enclosure formed of the trunks of trees arranged as a palisade, and containing a deep ditch or hole. The drove of Elephants, thus pursued, arrives at the entrance to the trap. The chief, who precedes and guides the band, hesitates a long while before he will enter it. He is attracted however by fruits and the stalks of those plants of which he is most fond, such as sugar-canes and bananas, and which have been placed there by the Elephant- catchers. * The African Elephants in the London Zoological Gardens are fully as tract- able as the Asiatic, and are equally intelligent. Already, since the British campaign in Abyssinia, some African Elephants have been tamed and put to uses in that country. — Ed. ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. . 125 As soon as the chief has gone into it, the whole troop follow him. All is not, however, yet over, for it is necessary above all things to get them all isolated from each other, so as to get possession of them and tame them separately. With this object in view, they place fruit and herbs near the entrance of very narrow passages, in which the animals cannot turn round. As soon as an Elephant has entered into one of these, they shut the door and so cut off its retreat. There they keep the animal a prisoner by cross-bars forced in between its legs. Soon after the captive’s limbs and feet are securely tied with cords. Each prisoner is then left to its keeper, who, “ with time and patience,” by caressing, threatening, depriving it of food, or humouring its appetite, manages by degrees to approach his charge without danger. It requires about six months before the animal will allow its mahout to get on its back. However, love of liberty is so great in these proud giants, that they occasionally, though very rarely, seize the opportunity, when it presents itself, of escaping into the woods and of resuming their wild life. Let us add, that tame Elephants serve, in their turn, to break in their wild brethren, and to accustom them to Man — a singular proof of intelligence or of philosophy in animals, particularly in those which always secretly preserve a strong love for the liberty they have lost. As for the Elephants which live isolated in the forests, the Indians capture them in various ways. For example, they cast a slip-knot over one of the hind feet of those which they have been able to approach stealthily ; making fast the other ex- tremity of the cord to a tree, they then envelop it in a net-work and other bonds. They build a roof in the tree to which the captive is attached ; and when fatigue and hunger have weakened the unfortunate, they come with a tame Ele- phant, which reassures it, appeases it, and conducts it to the stable* A well-trained Elephant is considered of very great value in * They are also taken in various other ways, and a solitary male wild Elephant is usually approached by a couple of tame females, who caress him,- and while doing so avail themselves of opportunities to assist the men who had accompanied them in passing cords round the limbs of their dupe. This done, he is not now starved into submission, but a couple of powerful tame male Elephants take charge of the captive, and soon reduce him to obedience, sometimes by very rough means. — Ed. 126 MAMMALIA. Asia. Its strength is about five times that of the Camel. In its | wild state, the Indian Elephant is believed to attain to the age of two hundred years ; hut it rarely is so long lived in a state of captivity. In war they are employed for carrying the sick, and ! camp equipage. The English in India harness them in their i; artillery trains. Moreover, the proprietors of large cultivated | plains, in certain parts of India, have succeeded in making them draw ploughs. Never did a more monstrous beast of draught turn S up the earth with a ploughshare. A ploughing Elephant does the j work of thirty oxen. Without the presence of numerous Elephants to grace it, no public fete in most parts of India is considered complete. It always figures in the suite of princes* and state processions. It is especially useful for carrying sportsmen on its back in Tiger hunting, and, if need be, for defending them against it, when this terrible animal turns to bay. Yan Orlich, a naturalist who travelled much, has described the singular feeling of surprise he experienced when he rode for the first time on the back of an Elephant. A cushion stuffed ! with hair is placed on the back of the animal ; over the cushion is thrown a long drapery of red cloth embroidered with gold, which hangs down on each side of the Elephant ; on this drapery is fixed, with girths, a seat made to contain two persons and their suite. The guide, or mahout, sits on the neck of the beast, behind its ears, and directed its movements with an iron fork, of which one of the prongs is bent round. The motion is sometimes plea- sant, sometimes fatiguing. At times the pace was so rapid that a man on horseback could with difficulty keep up. But this pace lasted a very short time, and the animal only did his twenty- four miles a day. The Asiatic Elephant has been trained for domestic and military use for many ages. In the wars which took place i between the peoples of Southern Asia, these animals were loaded with towers occupied by men armed with arrows, slings, or javelins. The first armies which had Elephants in their train were everywhere victorious. The sight alone of them equipped for war, struck the battalions with terror. The Romans were greatly alarmed when, in their campaigns against Pyrrhus, they saw for the first time these living machines. They learned, ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 127 however, in time how to fight against the Elephants. They broke their colossal legs with axes ; they threw in front of them enormous stakes, which embarrassed or prevented their charging. Later, the Romans themselves made use of Elephants in war, and Caesar found them of the greatest use to him in his cam- paign in Gaul. At Rome Elephants often appeared in the Coliseum, to fight with the gladiators ; and they were frequently harnessed to the chariot which conducted the victors in triumph to the Capitol. Caesar, to make his triumphal procession more striking and magnificent, caused the Elephants Re had taken in the battle of Thapsus to be brought to Rome. Then were seen forty of these magnificent animals, arranged in two rows, each carrying a torch in its trunk. The idea of this spectacle, which interested the Romans much, was borrowed from the kings of Egypt and Syria, 128 MAMMALIA. who were sometimes accompanied thus by Elephants that had been trained to carry torches.* One reads in the Stratagems of War, by Polyenus, that Julius Caesar, during his conquest of part of the Island of Great Britain, made use of an Elephant for crossing the Thames more rapidly. j Here are the details relating to this event given by Polyenus : — “ Caesar wanted to cross a great river, the opposite bank of !| which Cassivellaunus, one of the barbarous kings of Britain, was guarding with a large number of cavalry, a considerable body of I infantry, and a great many chariots of war. The Roman general, j seeing how difficult it would be to force the enemy from his position, caused an enormous Elephant, with iron trappings, and having on its back a tower containing archers and slingers, to ad- vance towards the enemy. This strange apparition struck with terror the inhabitants of Albion, who had never seen anything like it before ; their horses took fright and ran away with them, i and Caesar became master of the ford.” . We must here mention, with regard to the employment of Elephants in armies, that the Indian is more courageous than the African species. The Romans knew this, for in the battles in which they had only African to oppose to Indian Elephants, they took care to place them, not in front of the army, but behind the ; soldiers. This, according to Livy, the Romans did at the battle of Magnesium. The African Elephant has the head rounder and less broad above than the Asiatic Elephant. Its forehead has not the double lateral bump which is found on the forehead of the latter. Its ears are very much larger, and have their interior rims almost meeting over the occiput ; its tusk also is generally stronger. Various other peculiarities in the form of the bones and of the molar teeth still further distinguish the Elephant of Africa from that of Asia. The African Elephant is met with from the Cape of Good Hope to as far north as Hubia and Cape Verd. It consequently exists in Mozambique, in Abyssinia, in Guinea, and in Senegal. African Elephants live, like those of India, in troops more or * In all ancient Greek coins upon -which, an Elephant is represented it is always the Asiatic species ; and in all Roman coins invariably the African species. The Romans were familiar with both kinds. — Ed. ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 128 less numerous. They are sometimes found alone : the Dutch call these rodeurs, rovers or prowlers. They were formerly much more common in the environs of the Cape of Good Hope than they are at present. Thunberg relates that a hunter told him that he had killed, in these regions, four or five a day, and that regularly. He added that the number of his victims had many a time amounted to twelve or thirteen, and even to twenty-two in one day. This may perhaps have been but a braggart’s idle boast. Still they abound in the vast interior of Africa. The African differs much from the Asiatic Elephant in that which concerns its relations to Man. He does not require of the former what he obtains from the latter. The African Elephant has, in modern times, been rarely hunted but for the food which its flesh supplies, or more possibly for the sake of its tusks. In shooting the African Elephant guns and poisoned arrows are made use of. Formerly it was customary to entice it and make it fall into pits, at the bottom of which it impaled itself on sharp- pointed stakes. Levaillant has given some very interesting details on this sort of sport, but want of space forbids us from here repeating them. Delegorgue, a French traveller, has published, more recently, some curious accounts of the habits of African Elephants. Among these animals, gathered together in troops, there prevails a spirit of imitation which sometimes makes them all do exactly what the first has done. Delegorgue relates on this subject the following episode of one of his hunting excursions. A band of Elephants was coming towards him and his two hunting companions. He shot at the first of the troop ; the Elephant fell, sinking on its knees. A second Elephant was then killed, and fell on its knees over the first. Another of the sportsmen then shot in his turn, and the Elephant aimed at fell in the same manner over the two others. All the Elephants fell thus on their knees even to the very last of them (eleven in all !) under the fire of the sportsmen.* The African Elephant has not always been a useless being, fit only to be a target for adventurous sportsmen. In ancient days, when the empire of Carthage was flourishing, this immense living machine was turned into a powerful auxiliary. The Carthaginians * This does not accord with the experience of our numerous British sportsmen who have shot so many African Elephants ! — Ed. K 130 MAMMALIA. employed it in all those works which are accomplished in other parts of the globe by Horses and other beasts of burden. If was placed in the first rank in battle, and history informs us of the important part the African Elephants fulfilled which Hannibal brought with his armies when he invaded Italy, and put to such great peril the power of the ancient Homan people. In the superficial layers or strata of the soil of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, are often found the tusks, the molar teeth, and the bones of Elephants. Scientific men were for a long time puzzled as to the source from where these bony remains. Before people knew anything of geology, they took these gigantic remains for the bones of giants, who, according to certain cosmogonies, lived on the earth before the existence of the human race. Thus, the Spartans saw the body of Orestes in the bones of an Elephant of twelve feet in length, found in Thrace ; a gigantic knee-pan, found near Salaminus, was attributed to Ajax; and some bones of a very great size, dug up in Sicily, were considered as the remains of the giant Polyphemus. Thanks to the progress of the science of geology, we know nowadays that these bony remains belonged chiefly to a species of Elephant now extinct, the Mammoth (. Elephas primigenius). Ho land is more fruitful in fossil bones of the Elephant than the north of Asia. Such a profusion of these are found in the islands of Hew Siberia, which are adjacent to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, that the soil is almost entirely formed of them, cemented together by sand and ice. The tusks of the Mammoth are so abundant in the north of Siberia, that the Czars, wishing to reserve to themselves a monopoly of them, forbid the inhabitants to collect them. This fossil ivory is a matter which is very greatly speculated in at the present day. Each year innumerable cara- vans start off to its frozen shores, and bring back from it perfect cargoes of ivory, of which the industry of Europe makes the same use as it does of the ivory of those animals lately killed. There has been a great deal of discussion, and the discussion is still going on, as to how we are to explain the presence, in these frozen latitudes, of animals which live now only in the scorching regions of Africa and of Asia. It has been asked if the creatures to which they belonged lived under the equator,, as do their OBDEB OF PAOHYDEBMATA. 131 congeners at the present day ; and if they were transported north- wards by some geological cataclysm, or if they could have existed in the same places in which their remains are at present found. This last hypothesis has been found to be correct, from a wonderful discovery, which proves that the fossil Elephant, known among scientific men by the name of Mammoth, lived under the northern zones. The following is the discovery in question: — In 1799, a carcass of the Mammoth was found under the ice in Siberia. The Elephant, already much damaged, was examined in 1806 by Fig. 33.— Mammoth (Elephas pjmmigenius) . Professor Adams, of Moscow. The Siberians had cut it up, and used its flesh as food for their Dogs. The Bears and other carni- vorous animals had also consumed a great part of it ; hut a portion of the skin and one ear remained still untouched. He was able to distinguish the pupil of the eye, and the brain was also to he recognised. The skeleton was still entire, with the exception of one fore foot. The neck was still covered with a thick mane ; and the skin was covered with blackish hairs and a sort of reddish k 2 132 MAMMALIA. wool, in such abundance, that wbat remained of it could only be carried witb difficulty by ten men. Besides tbis, tbey collected more than thirty pounds weight of long and short hair, that the White Bears had buried in the damp ground after they had devoured its flesh. The remains of this animal, which came to light when buried in the ice for probably many thousand years, are preserved in the Museum of the Academy of St. Petersburg. j The Museum of Natural History at Paris possesses a piece of the skin and some locks of hair, with some flocks of wool, belonging to another Mammoth, which was found entire and in a perfect ;j state of preservation in the ice on the coasts of the Arctic Ocean. We have related these two facts, with all the necessary details, | in our work, The World before the Deluge , to which we refer our readers.* The only thing we want to establish here is, that the discovery of the Mammoth, made on the shores of the Irtisch, || proves that this animal lived in the regions of the north, of which the climate was then, perhaps, much warmer than it is now; i and that it is perfectly distinct from the two species actually in existence. To the Mammoth ( Elephas primigenius) we must add among the species of fossil Proboscidea the famous Mastodon of Ohio. Whilst the Mammoth has its tusks excessively curved round, the Mastodon has almost straight tusks ; the molar teeth differ also in each of these species. The bony remains of the Mastodon are found in the middle of America and in Central Europe. However, the question of the true species to be admitted among the fossil Elephants is still not well studied; and it is very difficult to understand the filiation between these species and the species of our own time. There is even a school of naturalists which sees no really characteristic difference between the Mastodon, the Mammoth, and the Elephant of the present day. Family of Ordinary Pachyderms. — The genera comprised in this family are — the Hippopotamus , Rhinoceros , Hyrax , Tapir , Wild Boar, Phacocheres, and Peccari. Hippopotamus. — The Hippopotamus (Fig. 34) is an enormous animal, of massive dimensions ; it sometimes attains to as much as three metres and a-half in length by more than three metres in * Chapman & Hall, London. OEDEE OP PACHYDEEMATA. 133 circumference. After the Elephant and the Rhinoceros, it is the largest of terrestrial Mammalia. Its head, very bulky, especially in its facial portion, is terminated in a large swelling muzzle. Its mouth, immoderately large, extends very nearly from eye to eye. All who have seen, in the J ardin des Plantes, at Paris, this monstrous mouth opening for a little piece of bread, have been surprised at the frightful appearance of this living gulf, armed with enormous canine, and large and pointed incisive, teeth. When it is shut, the upper lip descends in front and on the sides, like an enormous blobber lip ( lippa ), which covers the extremity of the lower jaw, and partly hides the underlip ; but on the sides it is the lower lip which stands up. The nostrils, which are in front of the muzzle, are surrounded by a muscular apparatus, which closes them hermetically when the animal is under water. The eyes are of middling size, but prominent. The upper portion of its head, denuded of hair, and of a pinky colour, reminds one of a calf’s head, after preparation at the butcher’s shop. An enormous, round body, spreading out on all sides, is crushed, as we may say, on to legs so short and fat that its belly nearly touches the ground. Each foot has four toes, each fur- nished with a little hoof. The tail, which is very short, has on it, here and there, a few hairs. The whole of this mass is covered with a bare skin, of a brownish hue, except at the joints, round the eyes, at the groins, &c., where it is pink. Numerous little hairs project from the surface of its skin, which is of considerable thickness, and fully justifies the place this animal has been given in the order of Pachydermata. The Hippopotamus inhabits Southern and Eastern Africa ; but everything announces that it will not be long in disappearing before civilization, that is to say, the sportsman’s gun. They were formerly much more abundant in the Nile than they are now, and they diminish equally in other localities. In the time of Levail- lant, that is to say in the eighteenth century, they abounded in the colony of the Cape of Good Hope ; but, in 1838, there were only two left on the property of a rich horse-breeder, who very carefully protected them. These animals live in troops on the banks of rivers and in their waters. On land, their gait is clumsy and heavy, for their own enormous weight fatigues them; but they are very quick and OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 135 active in the water, where they lose, by the pressure of the water, a great portion of their weight. And so they pass all day in the water, in which they swim and dive with extreme facility. When swimming they only let the upper surface of their heads he seen, from the ears or occiput to the surface of the nostrils, which allows them to breathe, to see all round them, and to hear the slightest noises. In breathing, they spout out noisily, in the form of irregular jets, such water as has become introduced into their nostrils. This spouting announces to the hunter the presence of the Hippopotamus. The word Hippopotamus, which signifies River-horse (lttttoc, horse, 7 roTa/nor, river), proclaims to us that the habits of this Pachyderm are essentially aquatic. At the approach of night the Hippopotamus visits the river- bank to look for its food. The moment it sets foot in the shallow parts of the river, it performs certain natural functions, at the same time beating with its tail the surface of the water. Mr. Andersen, an English traveller, says that he has seen as many as twenty or thirty of these animals in a row thus engaged. The public round the great basin in the Hippopotamus enclo- sure in the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, laughs much at this singular manoeuvre in which this monstrous animal indulges ; only it takes care to remove to a respectful distance, for fear of receiving a spattering that would be anything but agree- able. The Hippopotamus feeds on young stalks of reeds, little boughs, small shrubs, and water plants, also on roots and succulent bulbs. Its cry is hoarse, but of incredible depth, power, and volume. Those who have heard it are not astonished at the assertion of Adanson, who affirms that the cry of this Pachyderm had been distinctly heard from a distance of a quarter of a league. The habits of this animal are peaceable ; its disposition is, in general, mild and inoffensive ; it only turns vicious when it is attacked. Hippopotamus hunting is performed in different ways. Its enemies surprise it at night, on its leaving the waters, when it comes to browse in the meadows and the neighbouring plains ; or attack it by day in the river, either wth harpoons or guns, assail- ing it when it comes to the surface to breathe. The unfortunate 136 MAMMALIA. animal tries to defend itself. In its sudden action it sometimes overturns the boats containing its enemies. Occasionally, des- perate with rage at being wounded, it tries to tear the boats to pieces with its formidable tusks. Woe betide the men then who are on board ! With one bite it could cut through the middle of the body of a full-grown man. The natives of Africa hunt the Hippopotamus, first to obtain the ivory furnished by its tusks — an ivory which, without being so good as that of the Elephant, is nevertheless a valuable com- modity in the trade of the two hemispheres. The skin, or hide, which is very thick, is also employed in the manufacture of various instruments. The flesh of the Hippopotamus is also very much esteemed. It is sought after in South Africa as a delicate morsel. The epicures of the towns in the Cape Colony do not hesitate to employ their influence with the farmers of the interior of the African continent to obtain a quarter of a Sea-cow ( Vache de Mer). The parts of the skin of the animal covered with fat are salted and dried like bacon. Such are the inducements which threaten with complete and speedy destruction one of the zoological types the most curious, if not one of the most elegant. On account of the perfection to which fire-arms have been brought, hunting for these animals is much more easy than it was formerly, and everything announces that this species will very soon become extinct. The inhabitants of equatorial Africa catch the Hippopotamus in a trap. Knowing the paths taken by the animal on leaving the river to go along the bank, they hang in a thicket, with the help of long poles kept in equilibrium, a stake terminated in a steel point. , The Hippopotamus, in traversing the thicket, deranges the poles, and the sharp instrument, falling from a great height on the animal’s head, kills or wounds it so seriously that it can easily afterwards be approached and despatched. The history of the Hippopotamus for a long time reposed on very vague notions. Herodotus attributed to it a tail furnished with hair analogous to that of Horses ; Aristotle gave it a name ; and Pliny reproduced these two assertions without commen- tary. The artists of antiquity, more faithful to nature than the his- torians and the naturalists, have left good representations of this OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 137 animal. In the palace of the Vatican, at Rome, on the bas- relief which forms the plinth of the ancient colossal statue of the Nile, is given pretty correctly the outline of the Hippopotamus. One sees other very exact representations in certain mosaics at Pompeii, and again on the medals of Adrian, which represent so frequently the banks of the Nile. The Hippopotamus has been seen only on very rare occasions at Rome. Scaurus, when edile, exhibited one. Augustus showed another during the fetes which were instituted in honour of his triumph over Cleopatra. The emperors, Commodus and Helio- gabalus also caused a few of these animals to be brought there. But none appeared in Europe in the middle ages, and it is only within the last few years that the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, and the Regent’s Park Gardens, at London, has been able to pro- cure living specimens of this Pachyderm. j Rhinocerotidce, Rhinoceroses. — Remarkable for their great size and for their strength, the Rhinoceroses ought, for this double reason, to rank immediately after the Elephant. Their most prominent feature — we do not mean a joke — which is unique in the Mammalia, is that that they have on their nose one or two horns, filled up and solid. Hence the name, which is derived from two Greek words (/ oiv, nose, and /cepae, horn). Rhinoceroses were much more numerous in remote eras than they are at present. There have existed numerous different species, several of them living in temperate and even in cold climates — as France, Germany, and Russia. These animals are no longer found, except in the hottest portions of the Old World. Aristotle says nothing of the Rhinoceros ; but Athenseus, Pliny, and Strabo mention it in their works. The first Rhinoceros men- tioned in history figured in a fete given in Egypt by the King Ptolemy Philadelphus. Later, Pompey, Augustus, the emperors Antoninus and Heliogabalus, brought some into Europe, and made them fight in the Coliseum, at Rome, sometimes with the Hippo- potamus, sometimes with the Elephant. We must then pass on to the sixteenth century to find in European history any new men- tion of these animals. In 1513, Emmanuel, the King of Portugal, received from India a one-horned Rhinoceros. Albert Hurer made an engraving of it on wood, which was for a long time copied and 138 MAMMALIA. reproduced in works on natural history. Only this representation of it is very inexact ; for Albert Durer had executed it after an incorrect drawing sent him from Lisbon into Germany. During the eighteenth century, a Rhinoceros was brought to Holland ; two were taken to London at the end of the same century. The menagerie at Versailles bought one of these last-named animals, which very soon died, and was dissected by Mertrud and Vicq d’Azyr. Since the beginning of our century, Europe has received many of these gigantic and curious quadrupeds (hut only of one species until quite recently) . The Great Indian Rhinoceros inhabits the regions situated beyond the Ganges, and especially the valley of Opam, along the base of the eastern Himalaya Mountains. It is more than three metres in length and two metres in height. Its head is short and triangular ; its mouth, of a moderate size, has an upper lip, which is longer than the lower, pointed and movable. It has in each jaw two strong incisive teeth. Its eyes are small ; its ears are rather long and movable. The horn upon its nose is pointed, conical, not compressed, sometimes two feet in length, and slightly curved backwards. This singular weapon is composed of a cluster of hairs closely adherent ; for when the point is blunted, it is often seen divided into fibres resembling the hairs of a brush. This horn is, however, very solid, hard, of a brownish red on the outside, of a golden yellow inside, and black in the centre. The neck of this animal is short and covered with folds and creases. Its shoulders are thick- set and heavy ; its ponderous body is covered with a skin remarkable for the deep wrinkles or creases with which it is furrowed, backwards and across the fore- quarters, and across the thighs. Thus, as it were, to all appear- ance cut up into plaits of mail, the Great Indian Rhinoceros seems to be covered with a cloak made for it. This cloak has, indeed, been compared to a suit of armour of well adjusted pieces. The hide is, however, so thick and hard that, without these creases or folds, the animal, imprisoned, as it were, in its armour, could scarcely move. It is of a dark colour, nearly bare, generally provided only with a few coarse and stiff hairs on the tail and ears, occasionally with curly woolly hairs on certain parts of the ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 139 The Great Indian Rhinoceros (Fig. 35) is heavy and more massive than even the Elephant, on account of the shortness of its limbs. The feet have each three toes, of which one sees nothing but the hoof which covers them. The tail is short and thin. This huge Pachyderm lives alone in the forests and near rivers and marshes, because it is fond of wallowing in the mud, like the wild boar, which it somewhat resembles in its 140 MAMMALIA. habits. Though such a powerful animal, it rarely attacks before it is interfered with ; the other large animals fear it, and con- sequently leave it unmolested. Its horn only serves it for moving branches out of its way and for clearing a road for itself in the thickets, in the midst of which it passes its taciturn existence. Some naturalists have said that it uses its tusks for tearing up the roots on which it is fond of feeding ; but in order to turn up the soil, the animal, from the position of its horn and from that horn : being curved backwards, would be obliged to assume an attitude which the shortness of its neck and its general conformation render impossible.* Its principal food consists of roots, of succulent plants, and of small branches of trees, which it tears oif, seizes, and breaks with its upper lip, which is elongated and movable, and which it uses j with great adroitness, almost in the same way in which the Ele- phant uses its trunk. When it is kept in a state of captivity, it eats bread, rice, bran soaked in water, hay, and carrots. Its clumsy shape, its short legs, its belly almost touching the ground, render this animal very ugly and ill-favoured. Its diminutive eyes seem to indicate a low order of intelligence. I And so the Rhinoceros is a dull beast, brusque, and almost un- tameable. When it is not irritated, its voice has a great analogy to the grunting of a pig ; if it is angered it utters sharp, piercing cries, that can be heard at great distances. The female has only one young one, which she carries for nine months, and which she tends with great care. It is dangerous to be thrown in contact with the female at this period. In India, in former times, the Rhinoceros was hunted on light, quick horses. The huntsmen followed it from afar oif, and without any noise, till the animal became tired and was obliged to lie down and sleep. Then the sportsmen approached it, taking care to keep to leeward, for it has a very acute sense of smell. When they were within shot, they dismounted, aimed at the head, fired, and galloped away ; for if the Rhinoceros is only wounded, it rushes furiously upon its aggressors. When struck by a bullet, it aban- dons itself wholly to rage. It rushes straight forward, smashing, overturning, trampling under foot, and crushing to atoms every- * A wounded Rhinoceros of this species has been seen to cut the reeds on either side of it as perfectly as if done with the sharpest incisive instrument. — Ed. ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 141 thing which is unfortunate enough to be in its road. Its pursuers can avoid these formidable attacks by making digressions to the right or left, for the course taken by the Rhinoceros is always rectilinear, never turning out of its direction or retracing its steps. If the Indians dare to run the risks involved in such dangerous sport, it is because the skin and horn of the animal are of great value. Sportsmen also find the skin of the Rhinoceros of utility : it is made into leather, which is so hard that it can only be cut with great difficulty by the best steel. The Indians like the flesh of the Rhinoceros ; but the Chinese are excessively fond of it. After swallows’ nests, lizards’ eggs, and little dogs, there is nothing to be compared, according to the Chinesp, to the tail of a Rhinoceros, or to a jelly made with the skin from this animal’s belly ! Let us add, that the Chinese attribute to the horn of this Pachyderm marvellous properties, amongst others that of destroying the effects of the most deadly poisons. The Asiatic kings, who had too often to be afraid of poisoned beverages, had their drinking-cups made of the horn of the Rhinoceros; these cups were considered by them of in- estimable value. In menageries, the Asiatic Rhinoceros is generally a gloomy, but a mild and obedient animal. But sometimes the constraint in which it is retained gives it fits of impatience and fury, when it becomes dangerous. In its despair it has been known to dash its head violently against the walls of its stable. Generally, how- ever, it recognises its keeper’s authority, and shows itself con- scious of his presence and grateful to him for his care. There exists at Java a peculiar representative of the Asiatic Rhinoceros. This species has only one horn. Again another species, peculiar to Sumatra, has two horns. The African Rhinoceros was known to the ancients, for its effigy is found on medals struck in the time of the Emperor Domitian. It has on its nose two conical horns, inclined back- wards ; the foremost horn is seventy centimetres long, the second much shorter. It is a large animal ; its skin has no wrinkles, nor folds, and is almost entirely bare (Fig. 36). This Rhinoceros inhabits Caffraria, the Hottentot country, and probably the whole of Southern Africa. It lives in the forests 142 MAMMALIA. which overshadow the hanks of the great rivers, and is still more shy than the Asiatic Rhinoceros. It is hunted, and supplies the same products as make valuable the Asiatic species. A species, or a simple variety of the Rhinoceros, — about the habits of which and the manner of hunting it, the English traveller, Rruce, has given some details, — is met with near the ponds and rivers of Abyssinia. Hidden during the day in the thickets, it Fig. 36.— Two-liorned African Kli1riQeepos_.(7? Borin'). OEDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 143 sallies out at night, to eat the young boughs covered with leaves. After feeding it wallows, covering itself with repeated layers of mud, to preserve it from the sting of the gad-flies — its small but troublesome enemies. When the mud is dry, it falls off, ! exposing the animal to fresh attacks. To allay the irritation caused by these annoying insects, it rubs itself against the trunks of trees, and during this operation it grumbles and grunts so ! loudly that it betrays its place of retreat to the hunters, who i attack it and kill it by shooting arrows into its flank, the most vital portion ofh-its body, and in which a wound is certain to pro- duce death. Other hunters, called in the language of the country agageer Qiam. or hock cutters, coupe-jar nets), pursue on horseback and kill tie Rhinoceros with extraordinary courage and address. ; Two men ,rid*e on the same horse. The one is dressed, and armed with. javelins pfhe other is naked, and has nothing but a long sword in hisRand. The first sits on the saddle, the second rides behind : him , on the horse’s rump. Directly they have got on the track of the quarry, they' start off in pursuit of it, taking care to keep i at a great distance^from the Rhinoceros when it plunges into the thickens, in the midst of which it opens for itself a broad passage, which closes as the animal passes on, but the moment it arrives in an open spot they pass it, and place themselves opposite to it. The animal, in a rage, hesitates for a moment, then rushes furiously upon the horse and its riders. These avoid the assault by a quick movement to the right or the left, and the man who carries the long sword lets himself slide off on to the ground without being perceived by the Rhinoceros, which takes alone notice of the horse. Then the courageous hunter, with one blow of his formidable Durandal, cuts through the tendon of the ham or hock of one of the monster’s hind legs, which causes it to fall j to the ground, when it is despatched with arrows and the sword. The grandees of Abyssinia also engage in the pursuit of the Rhino- | ceros. But they attack these animals with guns. It is in this ! way also that the Hottentots and the colonists of the Cape of Good Hope hunt this Pachyderm. From late researches we are convinced that there are at least six existing species of Rhinoceros — three in Asia and three in I Africa ; and they differ so much from each other that Dr. Gray has ! referred them to four generic divisions, which are quite as distinct 144 MAMMALIA. as the genera recognised in other families, and indeed more so than in many. The geographical range of the Great Indian Rhinoceros would appear to be at present restricted, or very nearly so, to the tarai , an unhealthy marshy tract at the foot of the Himalaya, skirting ! the territories of JSTipal, Sikhim, and Bhotan. As remarked by an experienced naturalist, Dr. Jerdon, in his Mammals of India, this animal “ is more common in the eastern portions of the tarai than : the western, and is most abundant in Assam and the Bhotan Dooars. I have heard from one sportsman/’ he adds, “ of its occurrence as far west as Rohilkund, but it is certainly rare there now, and indeed along the greatest part of the Mpal tarai; and, although a few have been killed in the Sikhim tarai, they are more numerous east of the Teesta river.” Dr. Jerdon suspects that it has crossed the great river Brahmaputra, and that it may be found in some of the hill ranges to the east and south of that river. From the dimensions given of a pair killed in the Garrow hills, in the territory indicated, we conclude that such must be the case, and that both of the One-horned Rhinoceroses are there met with ; but from recent investigations it would appear that from thence southward, it is completely replaced by the It. sondaicus, a smaller kind, which has generally been supposed to be peculiar to the island of Java. The difference between these two species of One-horned Rhino- ceros is not sufficiently striking to be noticeable by an ordinary beholder, unless perhaps he might chance to have the rare oppor- j tunity of comparing the two together ; and thus there are sports- men who have killed both species in their respective haunts, but have failed to discriminate them apart, considering the smaller kind to be merely not fully grown. The R. sondaicus is about (or almost) a third less in size than the R. indicus , and its coat of mail is much the same, except that the tubercles on the hide are con- siderably smaller and of uniform size throughout, and (at least in the young animal) the polygonal facets of the skin have a few small bristles growing upon a depression in the centre of each of them. One marked distinction at all ages consists in this, that the strong fold or plait at the setting on of the neck, which is continued across the shoulders in the smaller species, or R. son- daicus, is not continued across in the larger one, or R. indicus, but ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 145 curves backward and terminates over the blade-bone in the latter. In R. sondaicus the neck-folds are less heavy and pendulous, and the posterior plait which crosses the buttock from the base of the tail is less extended, not reaching to the great vertical ! fold anterior to the hind- quarters, as it does in R. indicus. Of numerous skulls examined of both of them, those of each varying : considerably in contour, the width in some being conspicuously greater than in others, the depth of the ascending portion of the lower jaw — from the condyle to base— averages twelve inches in adults of R. indicus , and never exceeds nine inches in R. sondaicus. The length of skull from occiput to tip of united nasal bones (measured by callipers) is, — in R. indicus , two feet (half an inch more or less, English measure) ; in R. sondaicus , a foot and three- quarters at most. Breadth of bony interspace between the tusks of the lower jaw, — in R. indicus , one and a half to one and three- quarters inches ; in R. sondaicus , three-quarters to one inch. The skulls of R. sondaicus examined were from the Bengal Sundarbans, the Tenasserain provinces, and Java ; and it was from a Javanese skull that the illustrious anatomist, Cowper, first discriminated it as a distinct species from the others ; the same individual skull [l being figured in the Ossemens Fossiles of Baron Cuvier, who, in that work, rightly indicates the animal as being a little smaller than the other ( d'une taille un peu moindre ), and as otherwise much resembling it ; but in his subsequently published second edition of the Regne Animal , while mentioning the particular distinction of the great neck-fold, he refers to his brother’s figure in the Planches des Mammiferes , as illustrative of his R. javanas. Professor Schirz, however, gives the species of Frederic Cuvier as R. javanicus. But the late Dr. Horsfield had previously well figured the animal, in his Zoological Researches in Java , as R. sondaicus of Cuvier, and by the same name it has since been figured and described in the great Dutch work of Dr. Salomon Muller and Professor Semminck. Now M. Frederic Cuvier’s figure of his supposed Javanese Bhinoceros represents, most decidedly, a young animal of the Asiatic Two-horned Bhinoceros, which does not inhabit Java ! And it is a better figure of the latter than the one which he gives as representing that two-horned species. Both are copies of drawings by native artists, sent by MM. Diard and Dusancel ; and in the former instance the posterior horn had been L 146 MAMMALIA. overlooked, though, a rudiment of it would certainly have been 5 apparent at the age represented. That figure has misled naturalists, who have designated the animal as le Petit Rhinoceros de Java; { whereas Horsfield was informed that the individual figured by him grew afterwards to a height of five feet seven inches, which must surely he a mistake ! Four feet seven inches was the probable measurement, even if taken round the curve of the body. A sporting writer, describing one which he killed in the Garrow hills, gives the height of it as four feet four inches. “ It proved to be a male, with a pretty large horn, and he was a very powerful animal.” Other Rhinoceroses (doubtless R. indicus ) killed in the same tract of territory are described as exceeding six feet in height, which is probably an exaggeration, or at least they must have been measured round the curvature of the body as they lay i dead, which in so bulky a carcass would add some inches to the alleged stature. As the smaller example (doubtless R. sondaicus) \ had “ a pretty long horn,” we may be certain that he was full j grown, and may, accordingly, infer with some confidence that both species inhabit the hill territory known as the Garrows, and probably also the Khasya and Jhyntea hills, if not still farther eastward. Dr. Jerdon remarks (in the excellent work already cited) that “ the R. sondaicus is found at present in the Bengal Sundarbans, and a very few individuals are stated to occur in the forest tract along l the Mahanuddi river, and extending northwards towards Midas- j pore ; and also on the northern edge of the Rajmahal hills, near | the Ganges. Several have been killed quite recently,” he adds, “ within a few miles of Calcutta.” According to another writer, | they are or were “ found in great numbers at the bottom of the Rajmahal and Sikri Gulli hills, but are seldom seen in the district of Purneah. They live chiefly upon growing rice and vegetable roots, the horn enabling them to procure vegetable matter embedded in the earth.” Having a horn suitable for the purpose, they may thus use it ; but the nasal horn in this group of Pachyderms | varies so much in shape and direction, according to the species, that it is not always suitable for such employment ; and it may 1 well be asked of what use is the strong horn of some of them, which in the Keitloa Rhinoceros of Africa is sometimes as long as the anterior one, while in some individuals of the Asiatic Two- ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 147 horned species, the fore-horn is so very ranch elongated and curves so far backward that it is difficult to imagine how it could be put to any service. An experienced sporting writer remarks of one of the single-horned species, that “ it is a mistake to suppose that the horn is their most formidable weapon. I thought so myself at one time,” he adds, “but have long been satisfied that it is merely used in defence, and not as an instrument of offence. It is with their cutting-teeth” (lower canines) “that they wound so des- perately. I killed a large male,” this writer asserts, “ which was cut and slashed all over its body with fighting ; the wounds were all fresh, and as cleanly made as if they had been done with a razor — the horn could not have been used here. Another one he had wounded stood, and out of pure rage cut at the jungle right and left, exactly as a Boar uses his tusks. A medical' friend had a man, who was sauntering through the forest, Actually disembowelled by a Rhinoceros. He examined the wound immediately, and I heard him say afterwards that if it had been done with the sharpest instrument, it could not have been cleaner cut. Such, then, could not have been done with the horn.” * In Java the R. sondaicus is reputed to be rather a timid animal ; but an instance is related of one attacking a sailor’s watering party in that island ; f and the full-grown Harrow Rhinoceros before men- tioned (as standing four feet five inches in height) had killed a man and a boy some days before he was shot. This smaller One-horned Rhinoceros appeares to be diffused more or less abundantly over the whole Indo-Chinese region (or the countries lying eastward of the Bay of Bengal), and through the Malayan peninsula, but it does not appear to inhabit Sumatra. In Java, according to Pro- fessor Reinhardt, it is “ found everywhere in the most elevated regions, ascending with an astonishing swiftness even to the highest tops of the mountains.” Dr. Horsfield also notices that “ it prefers high situations, but is not limited to a particular region or climate, its range extending from the limit of the ocean to the summits of mountains of considerable elevation. Its retreats are discovered by deeply excavated passages, which it forms along the declivities of mountains and hills. I found these occasionally of great depth and extent.” Of one of the single-horned species of this genus, an observer remarks, “ It is surprising to see how * Bengal Sporting Magazine , 1836, part ii., p. 158. f Zoologist , p. 1328. L 2 148 MAMMALIA. rapidly, and without the least exertion, as it seems, these huge, heavily-built, unwieldy-looking animals get over the ground, consisting of the densest jungle, of hill-reeds, bushes, and brush- wood, and thick s a /-saplings, interspersed with large trees. Awkward as is their gait, they trot very fast ; I say trot , for their movement more nearly resembles a trot than anything else, though actually it is rather a gait between a trot and a canter. Elephants with howdahs have no chance with them in the chase, and unless dropped with the first shot, or they suddenly stop and turn to stand at hay, thus exposing the fatal spot in the temple within fair ball- distance, they generally manage to escape. It is useless firing at the body.”* This was written before the present far more efficient style of weapon came into use (the low trajectory rifle), or the terrible explosive shell was invented, which is now so fatally destructive to the largest of land quadrupeds, as well as to the most gigantic of marine Cetaceans. In the early part of the sixteenth century of our era the famous Mogul Emperor Baber (the great-grandson of Timour Lang, or Tamerlane, and the founder of the dynasty of the Great Mogul) mentions incidentally, in his public memoirs, the occurrence of the Rhinoceros, the wild Buffalo, and the Lion in the neighbourhood j of the city of the Benares, and the wild Elephant in the vicinity ! of Chunar. In his notice of the animals peculiar to Hindustan, after describing the Elephant, the imperial author remarks, “ The Rhinoceros is another. This also is a huge animal. The opinion prevalent in our countries that a Rhinoceros can lift an Elephant on its horn is probably a mistake. It has a single horn over its nose upwards of a span in length ; but I never saw one of two spans.” (From this it would seem that the particular species referred to is R. sondaicus, inasmuch as Baber would probably bave been able to obtain larger examples of the horn of R. indicus.) “ Out of one of the largest of these horns I had a drinking vessel made and a dice-box, and about three or four fingers’ bulk of it might be left. Its hide is very thick. If it be shot at with a powerful bow drawn up to the arm-pit with much force, the arrow enters three or four fingers’ breadth. They say, however, that there are parts of its skin that may be pierced and the arrows enter deep. On the sides of its two shoulder-blades, and of its * Linndar remarks, “Viscera ad equina accedunt.” OEDEE OE PACHYDEEMATA. 149 thighs, are folds that hang loose, and appear at a distance like cloth housings dangling over it. It hears more resemblance to the Horse than to any other creature. As the Horse has a large stomach, so has this animal ; as the pastern of the Horse is com- posed of a single bone, so also is that of the Rhinoceros. It is more I! furious than the Elephant, and cannot be rendered so tame and obedient. There are numbers of them in the jungles of Peshauar and Hashuagar, as well as between the river Sind and Behreh in the jungles. In Hindustan, too, I frequently killed the Rhino- ceros. It strikes powerfully with its koru, with which, in the course of these hunts, many Men and many Horses were gored. In one hunt it tossed with its horn, a full spear’s length, the Horse of a young man named Maksud, whence he got the name of Rhinoceros Maksud.”* Again, in the course of his narrative, he states, aWe continued our march till we came near Bekram, and there halted. ISText morning we continued halting in the same station, and I went out i to hunt the Rhinoceros.” And again, “We crossed the Sia Ob” (black water), “in front of Bekram, and formed our ring lower down the river. When we had gone a short way, a man came after us with notice that a Rhinoceros had entered a little wood near Bekram, and that they had surrounded the wood and were waiting for us. We immediately proceeded towards the wood at full ! gallop, and cast a ring round it. Instantly on our raising the shout, the Rhinoceros issued out into the plain, and tooFtts^uightr- Humaiun, and those who had come from the same quarter, never having seen a Rhinoceros before, were greatly amused. They | followed it for nearly a kos” (two English miles), “shot many i arrows at it, and finally brought it down. This Rhinoceros did not j make a good set at any person or any horse. They afterward killed | another Rhinoceros. I had often amused myself with conjecturing how an Elephant and Rhinoceros would behave if brought to face | each other. On this occasion the elephant-keepers brought out the ; Elephants, so that one Elephant fell right in with the Rhinoceros. * Some of the royal Emperor Baber’s remarks are amusingly correct. Thus, of the common large Indian Frogs ( Rana tigrina ), he remarks, “ The Frogs of Hindustan are worthy of notice. Though of the same species as ” (i.e., akin to) “ our own, they will run six or seven guz ” (twelve or fourteen feet) “ on the face of the water.” During our long residence in India, we have known more than one naturalist traveller to have been at once struck with this peculiarity. — Ed. 150 MAMMALIA. As soon as the Elephant-drivers pnt their beasts in motion ; the Rhinoceros would not come up, but immediately ran off in another direction.” In a modern Rhinoceros hunt the Elephants are too apt to turn tail, and the great Indian Rhinoceros sometimes charges them ; but we remember no instance of an Elephant being wounded by an infuriated Rhinoceros. “ In the jungles round Chunar,” remarks the founder of the dynasty of the Great Mogul, “ there are many Elephants and elsewhere he asserts that the Elephant “ inhabits the district of Kalpe” (or Culpee), “ and the higher you advance from there towards the east, the more do the wild Elephants increase in number.” Gpon which his able translator remark justly, in a note penned more than half a century ago, that “ the improvement of Hindustan since Baber’s time must be prodigious. The wild Elephant is now confined to the forests under Himala, and to the ghats of Malabar. A wild Elephant near Karrah, Manikpore, or Kalpe, is a thing, at the present day, totally unknown. May not their familiar existence in these countries down to Baber’s days be considered as rather hostile to the accounts given of the super- abundant population of Hindustan in remote times ?” The description which Baber gives of a Mailed and Single-horned. Rhinoceros is unmistakable ; but it still seems passing strange that these huge Pachyderms should have been killed with arrows. At the present day the Rhinoceros has long been extirpated, with not so much as a tradition of it remaining in all the parts where Baber mentions its former occurrence ; but in the desert region north-west of Delhi the Lion was numerous within the memory of living man, and there we learn that already hardly a tradition remains of this formidable animal as a former and comparatively recent inhabitant of the extensive desert tract in question. Ceratorhinus , Gray. This genus is founded on the Two- horned Rhinoceros, C. sumatranus, a comparatively small animal, which certainly never much exceeds four feet in height ; but its horns sometimes attain a beautiful development, more especially the anterior one, which is much longer than the other, slender except at base, and has a graceful curvature backward, more or less decided in different individuals ; the other, or posterior horn, is not placed close behind the first, as in the different two-horned African species, but at a considerable distance from it, and it has OEDEE OE PACHYDEEMATA. 151 a corresponding backward curvature. An anterior born of this small Rhinoceros in tbe British Museum measures thirty- two inches along its front, and is seventeen inches in span from base to tip. We have seen a pair of horns of this Rhinoceros beautifully carved and polished, and set with the bases upwards and on a parallel in a carved black wooden stand, similar to those upon which Chinese metallic mirrors are mounted ; and the Chinamen give such extravagant prices for fine specimens that they are exceedingly difficult to be got hold of by any one else. We have seen a pair upon the head, the value of which was estimated at five guineas ; and the price, as usual, increases with the size and length to a sum much higher. The Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros has a comparatively smooth hide, which is somewhat thinly, though conspicuously, covered with short and coarsish black hair throughout : there are folds about the neck, a distinct fold behind the fore quarters, a slight fold, or rather crease, anterior to the hind limbs, and another slight fold at some distance above the hock; but nothing com- parable to the plaits of mail of the two One-horned Rhinoceroses. Inside of the folds the skin is of a sullied pinkish colour, and else- where its hue is brownish ashy. Its hide is rough, but not thick or hard, being easily cut through with a knife ; where thickest it does not exceed one third of an inch, decreasing to a quarter of an inch on the belly. The form of the skull approximates to certain of the extinct Rhinoceroses of the European- Asiatic continent, which were also two-horned, and the huge northern (extinct) R. tichorhinus , which is known to have been thickly clad with woolly hair. The Indian R. platyrhinus (likewise extinct), of the late Dr. Yalconer more especially, is just an immensely magnified representation of the diminutive existent C. sumatranus. The earliest description of the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros is by Mr. William Bell, then surgeon at Bencoolen, in Sumatra ; it is to be found in the Philosophical Transactions for 1793. In the same year the second edition of Pennant’s History of Quadrupeds appeared, giving a slight notice of the species, also as an in- habitant of Sumatra ; but little was at that time known of the geographical limits of the range of particular species, and Pennant never suspected its non- identity with the then known Two-horned Rhinoceros of Africa. Bell gave a tolerable figure of the beast, 152 MAMMALIA. and three representations of its skull ; and Sir T. Stamford Raffles remarks that “ Dr. Bell’s description and representation of this animal are extremely correct,” save that the folds of the skin “ are rather more distinct and defined than in Dr. Bell’s figure.” He adds that the natives of Sumatra “ assert that a third horn is sometimes met with ; and in one of the young specimens pro- cured, an indication of the kind was observed.” In Mr. C. J. Andersson’s work, entitled Lake N garni, the same is remarked of one or more of the ordinary Two-horned Rhinoceroses of Africa. This traveller writes : — I have met with persons who told me that they had killed Rhinoceroses with three horns ; but in all such cases (and they have been but few) the third or hindermost horn is so small as to be scarcely perceptible.” It is remarkable that Linnaeus referred to Rhinoceroses bearing a third horn,* and this seems to be a not unlikely character to have been developed more frequently in certain of the extinct species of Rhinocerotidce . A rudimentary second horn may, indeed, be seen upon the forehead of the large female of JR. indicus in the London Zoological Gardens ; and the alleged third horn referred to by Linnaeus, Raffles, and Andersson, we suspect to be merely a slight appearance of the same kind. The Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros has been supposed, until recently, to be peculiar to the island of Sumatra, as the smaller One-horned Rhinoceros is to that of Java ; but both of them are widely diffused over the Indo-Chinese countries, and through- out the Malayan peninsula, the smaller One-horned being like- wise found in Java, and the Asiatic Two-horned also in Borneo as well as in Sumatra. We have information of the two-horned species having been killed in one of the hill ranges imme- diately to the southward of the Brahmaputra river, so that its range may be said to extend northward into Assam (where, however, exceedingly rare), and a native female has recently been captured near the station of Chittegong, to the south-east of the Bengal Sundarbans, where R. sondaieus inhabits, and not the great One-horned Rhinoceros, which is so commonly brought alive to Europe, these captured animals being usually brought down from Assam. It is worthy of notice that the full-grown * To his description of JR. bicornis, it is added, “ Rarior est Rhinoceros tricornis, tertia turn cornu ex alteratro priorem excrescente.” (Gmelin’s edition, a.d. 1788.) OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 153 female of the Two-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros become very speedily tame and tractable. We have reason to believe that the Rhinoceroses mentioned by Du Halse as inhabiting the pro- vince of Quang-si, in the south-east of China, are of this small two-horned species. So long ago as in 1838, the late Dr. Heifer remarked that the Tenasterian provinces (now constituting the southern portion of British Burmah) “ seem to be a convenient place for this genus ; for I dare to pronounce almost positively/’ he then wrote, “ that the three known Asiatic species occur within their range. The R. indicus being found in the northern part of these provinces, in that high range bordering on Zimmay, called the ‘ Elephant- tail ’ Mountain ; the R. sondaicus, on the contrary, occupies the southernmost part ; while the two-horned R. sumatranus is to be found throughout the extent of the territories from the 17th to the 10th degree of north latitude. In character the R. sondaicus seems to be the mildest, and can be easily domesticated (tamed), the powerful Indian Rhinoceros is the shyest, and the double- horned the wildest.”* Mason (in 1850, in his work entitled, Burmah) remarked that “ the common Single-horned Rhinoceros is very abundant. The Double-horned is not uncommon in the southern provinces ; ” and then he alludes to the alleged fire-eater of the Burmans, supposing that to be R. sondaicus, as distinguished from the common single-horned kind, which he thought was R indicus . “ The fire- eating Rhinoceros,” he tells us, “ is so Called from its attacking the night fires of travellers, scattering the burning embers, and doing other mischief, being attracted by unusual noises, instead of fleeing from them as most wild animals do.” JSTow Professor Oldham’s camp-fire was attacked by a Rhinoceros, which he fired at with a two- ounce ball ; and three days afterwards the body was found, and proved to be of the Two- horned species. The skull of that individual is now in the ■ museum of Trinity College, Dublin. The commonest of the African Rhinoceroses has been known to manifest the same pro- pensity, and so has even the ordinary American Tapir ; but we have never heard of the Malabar Tapir doing so, and the range of that animal extends into the more southern of the Tenasterian provinces. In general, however, the Asiatic Two-horned Rhino- * Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. vii. p. 861. 154 MAMMALIA. ceros is an exceedingly sliy and timid animal, and Sir T. Stamford Raffles remarks of it : — “ They are not bold, and one of the largest size bas been seen to run away from a single wild dog.” ( Cams rutilans, a peculiar species) . Dr. Cantor heard of it in the Malayan peninsula, as an inhabitant of Province Wellesley, fre- quenting only the densest and most inaccessible jungles. He also gives both R. indicus and JR. sondaicus as inhabiting the Malayan peninsula, but did not procure specimens or other indicice , and we doubt if he wrote on personal knowledge, or that he had actually seen and compared the skulls of both species. It may be added that C. sumatranus, like R. sondaicus is found at all elevations, but that the two do not usually inhabit the same districts. In the course of personal investigations in the province of British Burmah, the author of these addenda obtained the spoils of both the lesser One-horned and of the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceroses. Of the latter a full-grown male was staked within a distance of not more than five miles of him, in Upper Mor- tabon, but the intervening ground was impracticable, and he only succeeded in obtaining the facial portion of the skulls, with the two horns attached to the skin covering it. The small size of the bones seemed to indicate a young animal, but when, after maceration in water, the skin (with the horns attached to it) was separated from the bone, the complete anchylosis of the nasals proved that it was by no means immature. The thought occurred that the horns of a Rhinoceros, consisting merely of agglutinated hairs, might, under rare circumstances, be shed in a mass, and subsequently renewed, which was the only way that the small size of the horns upon this tolerably aged animal could be accounted for. We have since learned that a great One-horned Rhinoceros, at this time living in the Zoological Garden at Moscow, did actually shed a horn, which is now in the museum of that city, and that another has since grown in its place. So the rudimentary frontal horn of the old female of the same species now in the London Zoological Gardens was roughly broken off on one occasion, and the blood flowed very profusely ; but another hornlet has since been developed in its place, and there can now be no doubt that the same occasionally happens with wild animals. OEDEE OE PACHYDEEMATA. 155 The genera of Rhinoeerotidce differ remarkably in the conforma- tion of the lips. In Rhinoceroses (as limited by Dr. Gray, i. e., to the two One-horned species) the upper lip is prehensile, extensible, and pointed, while the lower lip is very broad and square ; in the Asiatic Ceratorhians, and in the African Rhinoster , the upper lip is similarly formed, and the lower lip corresponds with it, though without haying a pointed and prehensile tip ; and in Ceratotherium both lips are broad and non-prehensile. Those Rhinoceroses which have the upper lip prehensile are habitual browsers, while the flat-lipped are habitual grazers. In the African Rhinoceroses there are no lower incisor-beeth, and the grinders come much more forward, or nearer to the cleft of the mouth. They further agree in bearing two horns, one situated behind the other, and in haying no distinct folds or plaits to the hide ; though in Rhinoster we perceive the same crease near the hind limbs as in Cerato- rhians, and there is a slight appearance of folds upon the neck. Their skin is smooth and hairless, excepting only a fringe of black bristly hairs upon the ears, and a few also at the tail- tip. Such are the known African Rhinoceroses, which divide, never- theless, into two well-marked genera — Rhinoster (with prehensile upper lip), and Ceratotherium (with non-prehensile upper lip). These are respectively known to sporting travellers as the Black and the White African Rhinoceroses, which differ much in habits and disposition ; and the White one is the largest of the whole group, being next in size among existing land animals to the Elephants. Rhinoster. — This is the name applied by the people of Dutch descent in South Africa to all Rhinoceroses, though now techni- cally limited by Dr. Gray to one section of them ; and there are certainly two species of this particular section or genus, one of which, R. Jceitloa, is considerably larger than the other, R. bi- cornis, and exhibits certain other differences. In general, these two animals are the Keitloa (or Khetloa) and the Borele of travellers in the interior of South Africa ; but Mr. Chapman styles the first the true Borele, and calls the other the Borelengani or Kenin - gani. The former is the one figured and described by the late Sir C. Cornwallis Harris as the “ Black Rhinoceros,” and the latter is that of which a living example, procured in Abyssinia, was received in the London Zoological Gardens in 1868. Both species, 156 MAMMALIA. however, have been ascertained to inhabit Abyssinia as well as the more southern parts of Africa. The Keitloa is said to grow to six feet high at the shoulder, and may at least approach that size, whereas the Borele would not probably exceed five feet. The horns of the Keitloa are much longer than in the other species, and its hind horn especially (which is straight and laterally much compressed) grows to two feet and a half or more in length, being not unfrequently as long as the anterior horn, though oftener the latter is still longer, and considerably more so than the other. In the Borele the posterior horn is much shorter, and is generally about half the length of the anterior one, which seldom exceeds two feet. Both of these are fierce and energetic animals — especially the smaller species — and so active and swift of foot that they cannot he overtaken on horseback. “Both species,” writes W. C. J. Andersson, “are extremely fierce, and, excepting the Buffalo, are, perhaps, the most dangerous of all the beasts of Southern Africa. Seen in its native wilds, either when browsing at its leisure, or listlessly sauntering about, a person would take this beast to be the most stupid and inoffensive of creatures ; yet, when his ire is roused, he becomes the reverse, and is then the most agile and terrible ef animals. The Black Bhinoceroses are, moreover, subject to sudden paroxysms of unprovoked fury, rushing and charging with inconceivable fierceness animals, stones, and bushes ; in short, every object that comes in their way.” “ The Black Rhinoceros,” writes Gordon Cummin g also, “is subject to paroxysms of sudden fury, often ploughing up the ground for several yards with its horns, and assaulting large bushes in the most violent manner. On these bushes they work for hours with their horns, at the same time snorting and blowing loudly, nor do they leave them in general until they have broken them to pieces. During the day they will be found lying asleep, or standing indolently in some retired part of the forest, or under the base of the mountains, sheltered from the power of the sun by some friendly grove of umbrella-topped mimosas. In the evening they commence their nightly ramble, and wander over a great extent of country. They usually visit the fountains between the hours of nine and twelve o’clock at night ; and it is on these occasions that they may be most successfully hunted, and with the least danger.” ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 157 The Keitloa, according to Mr. Chapman, is nearly as large as the Mohogu , or White Rhinoceros (so called). “ He is of a dark neutral grey colour, as seen from a distance. This animal droops behind, and has a stiff, clumsy, and awkward walk. He feeds on bushes and roots, is nervous and fidgety when discovered, but confines his movements generally only to the head and horns, moving them about in an undecided manner, first one way, then the other. He is not nearly so excitable as the Borelengani. The latter is a dumpy, plump-looking animal, of a very dark colour, particularly lively in his actions, and seemingly always on the trot, always very nervous, wary, and fidgety, often flying round in a fury, whether he has observed danger or not, making the hunter sometimes believe that he has been discovered. When he fancies that he does see or hear anything, he lifts one foot, tosses up his horn and nose and sinister little eyes, and presents alto- gether a picture of the most intense and earnest scrutiny and attention, wheeling round with great rapidity, and, by his active gestures and startling snortings, often rendering the nerves and aim of an inexperienced hunter very unsteady. On the whole his actions, when undisturbed, are like those of a lively and busy Pig.” Elsewhere he remarks, that whilst “ the White Rhinoceros likes the open plains, where there is just bush enough to shelter him from sun and wind, the Borele likes the thorny jungle, and the most secluded and retired spots of it ; the Keitloa (or large Black Rhinoceros) being more an inhabitant of rocky hills.” All Rhinoceroses are fond of wallowing in mud, with which the body is not unfrequently encrusted ; and their senses of hearing and smell are most acute, but not that of vision, so that they may be closely approached by keeping to leeward of them. On one occasion the waggon of a friend of Mr. Andersson was attacked by one of these animals. “We heard shouting and firing, and on looking in the direction whence the noise proceeded, discovered to our horror, a Rhinoceros rushing furiously at us at the top of his speed. Our only chance of escape was the waggon, into which we hurriedly flung ourselves. And it was high time that we should seek refuge, for the next instant the enraged beast struck his powerful horn into the bottom plank of the waggon with such force as to push the waggon several paces forward, although it was standing in very heavy sand. Most fortunately he attacked 158 MAMMALIA. the vehicle from behind; for if he had struck it at the side he could hardly have failed to upset it, ponderous as it was. From the waggon he made a rush at the fire, overturning the pot we had placed alongside of it, and scattering the burning brands in every direction. Then, without doing any further damage, he proceeded on his wild career.” Cer at other him. — The Flat-lipped or White Rhinoceros (so called from its general pale colour) is a very different animal from those of which we have been treating. It grows to more than six feet and a half high at the withers, where there is a sort of square hump, and its head is a foot longer than in the Keitloa, with an exceedingly long anterior horn, attaining to more than four feet in length, whilst the hind horn is very short, not exceeding seven or eight inches. “ Its colour,” remarks Mr. Chapman, “ is of such a light neutral grey, as to look nearly as white as the canvas tilt of a waggon.” His fellow-traveller, Mr. Baines, describing a freshly-killed one, tells us that “ the skin was of a light pinky grey, deepening into a bluish neutral tint on parts of the head, neck, and legs. The limbs, shoulders, cheeks, and neck were marked with deep wrinkles, crossing each other so as to have a lozenge- shaped reticulated appearance ; but the only approach to a fold was a slight collar-like mark across the throat. The mouth was very small, and the limbs were dwarfish compared with the bulk of the carcass. The eyes were small and set flat on the side of the head, with no prominence of brow, and in such a position that I should doubt very much the assertion that the Rhinoceros can see only what is straight before it. I should think, on the contrary,” continues Mr. Baines, “that anything exactly in front would be absolutely hidden from its view.” Mr. Chapman estimated the weight of one of these White Rhinoceroses as being probably not less than 5000 lbs. “ The male,” he says, “ measures six feet eight inches at the withers, carries his head so low that the chin nearly sweeps the ground, is constantly swaying his head to the right and left when suspicious, and its calf, instead of going behind or at the side, always precedes the dam, and when fleeing is helped on by her horn or snout. The back of this animal is tolerably straight, the croup being as high, or even higher, than the withers. It moves each ear alternately backwards and forwards when excited, ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 159 and the ears, when thrown forward, turn as if on a pivot, so as to bring the orifice innermost. In the other African Rhino- ceroses the two ears are moved together, and not alternately. The ears are pointed or tufted.” This animal is of a comparatively mild and gentle disposition ; and, unless in defence of its young, or when hotly pursued, or wounded, will very rarely attack a man. “ It is gregarious in families,” remarks Mr. Chapman, “ the individuals comprising which are greatly attached to each other ; and it utters a long sound, and not such a startling, whistling snort as the Borele does. It is an indolent creature, and becomes exceedingly fat by eating grass only.” Elsewhere, he remarks of a herd of eight which he observed at a drinking place — “ The Rhinoceroses, all of which were of the white kind, occupied each twelve minutes to drink their fill, after which they wallow in the mud, or else go to their regular sleeping-places. At these their dung is found ac- cumulated sometimes to the amount of a ton or more. They like the warmth of the manure to lie in. The sounds emitted by these animals is something like the coughing of a Horse, and when in distress, a stifled asthmatic cry; when in pain they squeal like a storm- whistle.” According to Gordon Gumming, and others, their flesh is excellent, and even preferable to beef. The speed of this species is very inferior to that of the others, so that a person well mounted can easily overtake and shoot them. In old individuals of the White Rhinoceroses, having exceedingly long and heavy anterior horns, the latter hang over much forward ; and such have been supposed to exemplify a peculiar species, for which the name of C. Oswettii has been proposed. They are also designated Kobaha in the interior of South Africa. Mr. Chapman writes : — “ I believe that wherever guns are to be found at present, the White Rhinoceros is not allowed to reach its prime, and will soon be extinct. In newly-opened countries we always find long-horned Rhinoceroses at first. These are selected and shot by every new comer for their long horns. I have never found a person yet who could conscientiously say that he had seen a young or middle-aged Kobaha that was distinguished from a Mohogu — not even a Bechuana or Bushman.” That traveller, however, nevertheless believes in the existence of a second species of flat-lipped and grass- eating African Rhinoceros, 180 MAMMALIA. though. ]ie has favoured us with no intelligible description of it. Fossilized bones of the Rhinoceros are met with in great quantities in tertiary and diluvian soils. We will only mention here the R. ticliorinus , which was greater in size than the African Rhinoceros, and had a very elongated head, supporting two long horns. The remains of this Pachyderm is pretty often found in the bone caverns ( cavernes a ossements), and in the alluvions of rivers of France and England. In Siberia the remains of the it. tichorinus are very plentiful ; they are mixed up with those of the Mammoth. In 1771 was discovered, in the midst of the ice of that region, a carcass, very nearly entire, of the antediluvian Rhinoceros, with its skin, its hair, and its flesh intact.* In the excavations made, preparatory to building the new Hotel de Yille, at Paris, an omoplate of the R. ticho- rinus was found. Hyrax. — Cuvier has placed next to the Rhinoceros a pretty little animal, the Hyrax of the Cape of Good Hope, which is not larger than a Rabbit. It is rather clumsily made ; its body elon- gated, and low on its legs ; its head thick and heavy ; its muzzle obtuse. Its coat, silky and very thick, is of a brownish grey above, of a greyish white below. It inhabits the mountains covered with woods near the Cape of Good Hope, and lives in the midst of the steepest and most precipitous rocks, either in a burrow, or in a fissure of the rocks, or in a hole in a tree. Quick, alert, and timid, it eats herbs, like the Hare, and is easily tamed. The naturalist, Boitard, in his work, Le Jar clin des Plantes , is very angry at seeing the bonds of form, of grandeur, of aspect, of habits, of intelligence, broken through by Cuvier, so that he may class this little beast, on account of the structure of its teeth, with the monstrous Rhinoceros. Let us be angry with him ; but, while we quite understand the complaints of senti- mental zoology, let us put the Hyrax in the place assigned to it by scientific zoology. The Hyrax of Syria is the Saphan of Scripture. Bufion has described it, and modern naturalists have studied it. Tapir. — Three species of Tapir are known ; two live in South America ; the third is peculiar to India. The Indian and one of * See Figuier's The World before the Deluge : Chapman & Hall. OKDER OR PACHYDEEMATA. 161 the American species have only been known for a short time ; but the other, the American Tapir, properly so called, is fre- quently seen in our menageries, and both its anatomical structure and its habits have been particularly studied by naturalists. The American Tapir (Fig. 37) is two metres long, from the nose to the beginning of its tail ; its height, measured at the withers or at the rump is one metre. The body is fat, and terminates in a broad rump. The head, which is pretty large, M Fjg. 37. — American Tapir (T. americanus , Gmel.). 162 MAMMALIA. is compressed on tlie sides ; tlie eyes are small ; the ears elongated, and the animal can contract or enlarge them ; the nose is pro- longed a few inches, in the shape of a trunk. This addition, which can he diminished to half and elongated to double its quiescent length, is without that movable finger which is the characteristic of the Elephant’s proboscis ; so it can he of no use in seizing objects or in sucking up water. The Tapir takes its food directly with its mouth ; when it drinks, it raises its con- tracted trunk in such a way as to prevent its being wetted. The neck is rather long ; and its legs are strong and thick. The anterior extremities are terminated in four toes, each of which is provided with a little, short, rounded hoof ; the posterior extre- mities have but three toes. The tail is very short and stumpy. The thick, hard skin of this animal is covered with short hair, very close and smooth, of a more or less dark brown, except under its head, its throat, and the tips of its ears, where it is of a whitish colour. The male has on his neck a short mane, com- posed of stiff bristles, of about an inch and a-half in length ; this decoration is sometimes seen on the female. In South America, from the Isthmus of Panama to the country adjoining the Straits of Magellan this Pachyderm is found, but it is most numerous in Paraguay, Brazil, and Guiana. It lives alone, hidden in the forests and in the most secluded retreats. Following always the same track in its excursions through the woods, it forms well-trodden footpaths, which the sportsman can easily recognise. It sleeps during the day, and wanders at night to seek its food. Sometimes, however, rainy weather brings it from its hiding-place during daylight, when it goes to the swamps, in which it delights to wallow, or to the streams, in which it swims with great agility. Its usual pace is a sort of trot ; when forced to gallop, ifc does so with its head down, in a peculiarly awkward manner. Its food consists of wild fruits, buds, and young branches of trees. A nitrous ( nitree ) soil, which is called in Paraguay bar- rero, is anxiously sought by it. Of a timid disposition, it never attacks man, but avoids him. However, when excited, it advances resolutely, and without fear, with its head lowered ; the keel- like shape of its skull and the hardness of its skin favouring this mode of assault. Often it is pounced upon by the Jaguar ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 163 and tlie Ounce, which spring on its back. The Tapir then rushes headlong into the thickest of the forest, and tries to get rid of its enemy by dashing against the trunks of the trees. The female Tapir is not prolific, as she only bears one young one in a season. Her maternal affection, however, is very great. In South America the Tapir is hunted, and affords good sport. Its flesh is dry, and rather disagreeable ; but its hide is thick and strong, and can be used for many purposes. Such is the American Tapir in its wild state. Ho one seems to think of rearing these creatures as domestic animals ; and yet it might be worth the trouble of trying the experiment, for they are easily tamed. Frederick Cuvier has given us a few details of the habits of a young Tapir with which he was acquainted. This animal was gentle and confiding ; and appeared to have no will of its own. It did not defend its food, but allowed the Dogs and Goats to partake of it together with itself. When it was let loose into an enclosure, after having been shut up for some time, it showed its joy by running round it several times. It also playfully seized by the back the puppies with which it was brought up. When it was forced to leave a place it liked, it complained by uttering a few plaintive cries. Frederick Cuvier assures us that, if the Tapir would be of any use to us, it could be very easily domesticated. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire also wished the experiment of domesticating this animal in Europe to be tried ; but his idea was never carried out. “ Not less easy to feed than the Pig,” says Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, “ the Tapir seems to me eminently suited to become one of our domestic animals. When it has no creatures of its I own kind to associate with, I have seen it seeking the society of all the animals that were near, with an eagerness without an I example in other Mammalia. The Tapir would be useful in two ways to man : its flesh, especially when improved by proper diet, 1 would furnish a wholesome, and at the same time an agreeable, i food; and as it is much larger than the pig, the Tapir might be of great service as a beast of burden to the inhabitants of the south of Europe, and, after a time, to those of colder countries.” During a sojourn of some months in the Andes of America, m 2 164 M. Raulin discovered a new species of Tapir, whicli lie named Tapir pinchaque. The head of this Pachyderm is very much like that of a fossilized animal of the same family, the Palceotherium ; however, it is smaller. The Tapir pinchaque , from living in cold countries and on high mountains, is entirely covered with long hair, which is of a brown colour. The Indian Tapir is larger than the Common Tapir, which it resembles in the shape of its body. Its hair is short. Its head, neck, shoulders, limbs, and tail are of a dark black colour ; its back, rump, belly, flanks, and the extremity of its ears white. It has no mane. It inhabits the forests of the Island of Sumatra and the peninsula of Malacca. Among the antediluvian animals there is a group very analogous to the Tapirs in their general form, in the structure of the head, and the smallness of the bones of the nose : it is that of the Paleeotherium, which we must class among the most ancient Mammalia that have ever existed on the surface of the globe. Palseotheria abound in the tertiary gypsum of the Paris basin. Suidce. — To this genus belong the ordinary Wild Boar, the exotic species which resemble it, and the different varieties of Domestic Pigs. The animals belonging to this group have the head enlongated and terminating in a strong movable snout. Their bodies are generally covered with stiff hairs, called bristles. The tail is rather short, and the feet have four toes ; two of these toes are large ; the two others, which are smaller, are situated at the back of the limb, and are not used for locomotion. Its very strong canine teeth are elongated in the shape of tusks, of which the lower are longer than the upper. The snout is a movable prolongation of the muzzle, supported by a bone, the base of which rests on the front part of the upper jaw. It is set in motion by two muscles situated on each side of the face. This bone is covered by a fibro-cartilaginous tissue, which is terminated in front in a circular surface, inclined downwards, covered with a thick and naked skin. On the upper rim or border of this truncated extremity of the muzzle is a large callous swelling, with which the animal turns up the soil, whilst the under part of the muzzle is used as a ploughshare. ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 165 The Common Wild Boar sometimes measures as much as one metre twenty-five centimetres from the end of the muzzle to the beginning of the tail. Its whole body is covered with bristles of a blackish -brown colour, stiff, hard, longer on the back and round the ears than in its other parts, and which form a sort of mane when the animal is excited. The body is large and thick- set. The ears are rather short, straight, and movable. The 166 MAMMALIA. four canine teeth, curved outwards and upwards, can attain such dimensions as to become formidable weapons. The upper canine teeth are large, conical, and obliquely truncated on their anterior surfaces from their rubbing against the lower teeth. The lower canine teeth, in the shape of a triangular pyramid, are equally curved outwards and upwards ; hut their points are not sharp. With its snout, which is possessed of great strength, the Wild Boar can hollow out the ground to a depth of sixty centimetres. The Wild Boar’s foot rests on the toes, which are very close to each other. When it walks, it constantly places its hind foot as far forward as the heel and a little outside of the front foot. It often happens that a toe of one of its feet is longer than the other, and is twisted into the shape of a crescent ; these toes are called in French des pieds gaudies, which is abbreviated into pig aches. Till the age of six months, the young Wild Boar (which is called in French Marcassin) wears a livery : which is striped longi- tudinally with hands, the colour of which is alternately light and brown fallow on a mixed ground of white, brown, or fawn colour. In summer, Wild Boars are principally to he met on the out- skirts of forests, in the approaches to fields or vineyards, and near swamps, where they retire during the heat of the day to refresh themselves by wallowing in the muddy water. In autumn, they permanently reside in the forests, in the heart of which they establish their winter retreat. Dark, damp localities are generally chosen for their lairs : here they lie hid during the whole day, and only leave in the evening or at night to seek their food. They dig up the ground in search of worms and the larvae or grubs of cockchafers ; and they also devour reptiles, birds’ eggs, and all the young animals they can surprise. Field-mice, Moles, and even young Babbits are likewise favourite food. Acorns, chestnuts, and beech-nuts constitute a large portion of their vegetable diet. They often lay waste fields of potatoes, maize, and other grain. A whole crop is sometimes destroyed by these animals in a single night. When they root up the soil in search of their food, they invariably proceed in a straight line, and as the furrows which they make are as broad as their heads, experienced sportsmen can thus tell the size of the animal whose track they are following. QBDEB OF PAOHYDEBMATA. 167 Although Wild Boars are fond of wallowing in the mud, yet tBey are of excessively cleanly habits, and accordingly wash them- selves in the ponds or brooks before returning to their lairs. The old males live alone ; but the females continue with their young ones for at least two years. In forests that are almost deserted, it happens sometimes that a number of females meet together and form, with their progeny, a considerable troop. The members of these coteries seem to know each othef ; they live on good terms and combine for one another’s defence. If the troop happens to he attacked, they form a circle, of which the weakest occupy the centre. When thus ranged in order of battle, they oppose to their enemies a desperate resistance. Previous to a female becoming pregnant, accompanied by a male, she quits the troop and retires into the depths of the forest. If a rival should discover their retreat, a terrible combat takes place, which is terminated sometimes by death. The female goes four months with young, when she brings forth a litter of from four to ten, these she hides in inaccessible thickets formed of briars and brambles, to save them, not only from the voracity of Wolves, but also from that of the males of her own species. She suckles them for three or four months, teaches them to find their food, and defends them with energy and desperate courage. The young one, we have said, is called (by the French) Mar- mssin ; when it is a year old, Bets de Oompagnie ; when two years old, Ragot ; when three years old, it is a Sanglier d son tiers an ; when four years old, it is a Quaternier ; and, lastly, it is called by the names of Vieux Sanglier, Solitaire , and Vieil Ermite. It lives from twenty to twenty- six years. Wild Boar hunting is occasionally dangerous sport. This savage animal is not alarmed by the pursuit and the barking of dogs ; but the sound of horns, the cries of the sportsmen, and the report of guns terrify it. It runs with a rapidity and a lightness which surprise us when we consider its heavy, thick-set figure. Its route is invariably straight, and if any imprudent hunter does not get out of its way, he is certain to be upset ; but it will not turn from its course to attack any one. If it is wounded, it changes its tactics, and rushes on all within reach. When fatigue or loss of blood prevents its flight, it places its back against a 168 MAMMALIA. bush or tree, and makes a most vigorous resistance. Those hounds which approach too closely are frequently ripped up. But there is always found, in a well-trained pack, some intelligent and knowing member, which keeps baying the game at a safe distance, and confuses the boar with its ferocious barking until a favourable moment occurs, when, with a bound, it seizes the game at its weak point — the ear. The furious animal is then what is called coiffe. It has lost all power, and is conquered. A Fig. 39. — Wild Boar at bay. bullet from one of the sportsmen or a blow from a cutlass soon after puts an end to its existence. Firing upon it as it leaves cover, driven out by strong dogs, is the method generally adopted for hunting the Wild Boar in France and Germany. In other lands the sportsmen secrete themselves at night, within shot of a vineyard, a clump of oak trees, or a pond, which the animals are i: and shoot them on their appearance. When taken young, the Wild Boar is n the habit of visiting. susceptible of a certain ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 169 amount of training. It becomes fond of its master, follows bim, and likes to be caressed. It, however, retains much of tbe rough- ness and bluntness which are natural to its race. For a bit of bread or some other little thing they are fond of, Wild Boars, when tamed, have been known to perform certain exercises, to assume different attitudes, and play various tricks. The in- habitants of the Place Saint-Sulpice, at Paris, remember a tame Boar that was kept in the courtyard of a man who let out vans for removing furniture, and which vras almost as quiet and docile as a domestic animal. The Wild Boar is found in those parts of France where there are still large forests. In England it has been long extinct. It was common in the environs of London in the twelfth century. In many parts of the continent of Europe, in the north and the east of Asia, it is abundant, and in many islands in the Mediter- ranean, also in Algeria, and Egypt. Without speaking further here of the species of Wild Boars peculiar to India and its islands, or of those which belong to Africa, we will pass on at once to the Domestic Pig, which is nothing but a Wild Boar which by a long servitude has been modified both physically and morally. There has been much controversy as to the origin of the Domestic Pig. On the one hand, it has been said that they sprang from Wild Boars that had been domesticated, and that they had, from generation to generation, gradually assumed the characteristics of the domestic animal. It has also been asserted, that Domestic Pigs, having been allowed to return to their wild life, have after a certain time resumed the form, the manners, and the habits of the Wild Boar. The male Pig is called a Boar, and the female a Sow. Soon after their birth, the young ones are called Sucking Pigs and Porkers. Hog is the general appellation of the adults. The Pig has a large, quadrangular, pyramidical head, more or less elongated, and truncated obliquely at its extremity. The eyes are small. The ears are placed high up on the head, and vary in form and direction according to the breed of the animal. The mouth is very wide. The canine teeth of the male are curved and projecting. The body is more or less long, broad, rounded, and covered with bristles, of which the quantity, the length, and 170 MAMMALIA. the colour are variable. Whilst in other domestic animals the fat is placed between the muscles, in the Pig it forms between the. flesh and the subcutaneous muscles. When cured, this is called bacon. In the interior of the body, that is to say, below the peritoneum, is found a secretion from which lard is made. The legs are thin, and more or less short, according to the breed ; the toes are four in number, two large ones, which rest on the ground and on which the animal supports itself, and two smaller ones, which are higher up the limb. The last joint of each toe is enveloped in a triangular horn. Its tail is small, thin, and twisted. According to certain authors, the Domestic Pig has lost nothing of the brutality of character and rusticity of habits of the Wild Boar ; it has not only, say they, become less intelligent, retaining all the faults of the latter, but none of its good qualities. Accord- ing to others, the Pig is not what some people erroneously sup- pose : but is clever and sagacious, and can be educated and instructed. In justification of this latter opinion we are told of some touching traits of good-fellowship that existed between a Pig and a Dog. We are reminded that Pigs have been trained for the chase ; that a Pig was exhibited on the stage in London and in America, and that it was the hero of many a play ; and, lastly, the audiences were in raptures at the amount of its language. “ Its cries of distress are lamentable,” says Dr. Jonathan Franklin. “ On the other hand, when it is happy, when it is walking at liberty in the sun, it converses with its friends in short, energetic, broken phrases, which doubtless express its good-humour and its sociable feelings.” * This indulgent interpretation of the grantings of the Pig is, perhaps, open to dispute. Without pretending to settle the matter, we will call our readers’ attention to a characteristic about which there is no doubt whatever, we mean the peculiarity this animal has of refusing obstinately to perform that which is re- quired of it, and of doing exactly the opposite. This spirit of stubborn opposition is so well known, that Man turns it to his own advantage. When a pig-driver wishes to make a Pig ad- vance in a certain direction against its will, he drags it with all * La Vie des Animaux , 8vo., Mammiferes. Fig. 40. — Pigs eating acorns. 172 MAMMALIA. his force by the tail in the opposite direction. As the beast supposes that it is required to go backwards, it precipitates itself in the reverse way. The voracity of this animal is as proverbial as its obstinacy. No sort of food comes amiss to it. It devours indifferently meat and vegetable products. A remarkable fact is7 that it can eat without danger hemlock and henbane, either of which are deadly poison to other animals. One may say that Man has manufactured the Pig, and that he makes it take the shape he finds most to his liking. The modifi- cations this animal has been made to undergo, by an elaborate system of breeding and rearing, are truly wonderful. This art has been carried to great perfection in England. Not only has the flesh of this Pachyderm been very greatly improved, but, moreover, their primitive proportions have, as we may say, been converted to the most desired form. The English, by their mode of treatment and the food they give it, have manufactured a new sort of monster, when we compare it with the primitive and wild type of Pig. Further this zoological monster is a chef-d’ oeuvre in an economical point of view. When it has attained this ideal type of perfection, the Pig is square-shaped ; its head disappears in a cushion of fat ; its belly reaches to the ground ; its whole body speaks of its weight and quality of flesh. What a difference there is between these singular products of civilization and the Pigs on our (French) farms ; lank, miserable creatures, making a fit member of the household of the peasant, whose condition is bad, whose land is unprofitable, and who is still ignorant of the best systems of breeding. In a work on the Pig,* M. Gustave Heuze divides into three groups the porcine races which live in Europe. The first com- prises the French races and their varieties ; the second contains all those that are of foreign origin ; to the third group belong the varieties which result from crosses between the French and foreign races. We will give the characteristic features which M. Heuze has marked out for distinguishing each of these varieties. Among the French breeds, the common race has the head and muzzle elongated ; the neck slender and long ; the ears thick, semi-pendant, and projecting in front of the eyes ; the body thin ; * Paris, 8 vo. 1867. ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 173 the back arched ; the rump hanging down ( avalee ) ; the legs thin ; the skin hard and covered with coarse bristles. The Norman race is better made. Its body is long, and its back horizontal. It has been brought to great perfection in the valley of Ange. The Craonaise race (Fig. 41) is remarkable for the fineness of its bones, of its skin, and of its bristles. Its pork is excellent, and so are its hams. The Lorraine race furnishes pork and bacon of excellent quality. All these races are white, and are gentle in their habits. To another group belong races which are piebald with white and black, and have semi-pendant ears. Such, for instance, are the Perigordine race (Fig. 42), of which the best specimens are sold at the fairs of Saint Yriex and Saint Leonard ; also the Bressane race (Fig. 43), of which the meat is rather coarse and stringy. Among the foreign breeds, we will confine ourselves to mention- ing the Middlesex, the Windsor, and the new Leicester breeds, remarkable for the symmetry of their shape, and their fine and rosy skin ; these in ten or twelve months become so excessively stout that the neck, the face, and the eyes almost disappear in the fat. Their flesh is fine and melting, but the animal is of a deli- cate constitution. The Berkshire breed (Fig. 44), hardy, rapid of growth, the most lucrative of all when it is well fed, furnishes excellent pork and a much firmer bacon than that which is given by the English white-skinned races. As examples of mixed races, that is to say crosses made between French and foreign breeds, we will confine ourselves to mentioning the New- Leicester Craonaise. The fecundity of Pigs is remarkable. Two litters a year can be obtained from a Sow, and each litter may consist of from twelve to fifteen. Agricultural reports tell us that one single Leicestershire Sow had three hundred and fifty-five young ones, in twenty litters. Y auban, when occupied with the question of provisioning towns, recommended the rearing of these animals : he calculated that in ten generations one single Sow could supply 6,434,838 Pigs. When a Sow has had a litter of Pigs, the little ones should be placed within reach of her teats, the most vigorous of the young MAMMALIA. 174 Pigs next the largest. Each Pig will keep to one and the same teat during the whole of the suckling period. When the number Fig. 41.— Craonaise race {Boar). of young ones exceeds the number of teats, the smallest animals are destroyed. It is necessary, moreover, to keep a constant watch Fig. 42.— Perigord race {Boar). over the mother during the time she is having her litter, for she sometimes is so unnatural as to eat her progeny. Our object is not to dwell here at any length on the rearing, ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 175 nor on the fattening of the Pig. Suffice it to remark that the animal is omnivorous, accommodates itself to all diets, eats every Fig. 43.— Bressane race ( Sow ). thing that is given it, and digests all sorts of food well. To the young Pigs, however, must he given vegetable matters con- Fig. 44. — Berkshire race {Boar). taming azote, which helps to develop their muscle. The vege- tables containing this to. the greatest extent are : clover, lucerne, wild chicory, lettuce, cabbage, carrot and beet-root leaves ; the 176 MAMMALIA. tubercles of beet-root, carrots, potatoes, also acorns, beecb-nuts, bran, tbe refuse of corn and potato flour factories, tbe water in which plates, dishes, and other kitchen utensils have been washed up, may be added as favourite food. To Pigs that are to be fatted must be given such kinds of sustenance which are called by physiologists respiratory ; that is to say, grain (barley, maize, oats, buckwheat, beans, peas), the residue of flour (oilcake and malt). We now come to the slaughter of the Pig, and to the various uses to which it is put. In all well-to-do cotter’s families in the villages of France, at the approach of Christmas a fat Pig is killed, so that there may be Pig’s pudding and sausages, and at Easter a ham. When the animal is killed, they begin by cleaning its skin. In the northern and central provinces they singe the Pig; that is to say, they cover it with straw, to which they set fire, which burns or scorches the bristles ; afterwards the body is washed and scraped. In the western and southern provinces they put the pig into a tub containing boiling water ; by this process the bristles are easily removed. The animal, thus prepared, is now opened. The lungs, the heart, the tongue, and the intestines are taken out ; it is then cut up, and divided into various joints. There is no animal that furnishes so many different parts suited for food as the Pig ; this is what makes it so immensely useful and econo- mical. We will say a few words on all these products. Pig’s pudding is made of the blood, spiced, salted, and larded, introduced into a piece of the gut, which is afterwards closed at each end. This is cooked for from fifteen to twenty minutes, in tepid, but not boiling water. Sausages are manufactured from a mixture of lean flesh and fresh fat bacon, with the addition of some salt and spices. Collared brawn is composed of the head of the animal. Lean pork, mixed with filet of beef, forms the ordinary saucisson. To these ingredients are added little squares of fat bacon, of about the size of dice. The saucisson de Lyon and the saucisson d ’Arles require meat of the first quality, fine, and streaked like marble. Some people pretend that the flesh of the ass plays a prominent part in the Lyons sausage ; but the Arles sausage-makers repudiate any addition of this kind to their productions. OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 177 The second quality of pork, interlarded, seasoned, and chopped fine, is used in making saveloys. The most fleshy of the intestines, pickled and seasoned, when divided into long fillets, and mixed with pieces of lean flesh and little hits of the fat, introduced into portions of the gut, constitute what is called the andouille (chitterlings). These are generally eaten grilled. They are also sometimes smoked, and cooked in soup. Pigs’ tongues are also greatly esteemed. Pickled pork is prepared by preserving various parts, such as portions of the fillet and brisket,, in a stone jar or barrel containing salt and water. The mass of fat which covers the neck and chest, melted over a fire, furnishes that grease of the Pig, which is called lard, and which advantageously replaces butter in many culinary prepa- rations. Ham (the familiar appellation for the leg and thigh of the Pig, when preserved after a certain manner) plays a prominent part in the alimentation of the public. In Prance, the best hams are prepared in the departments of the Bas-Phin, of the Haut- Bhin, of the Meuse, of the Moselle, the Ardennes, the Yosges, and the Basses-Pyrenees. Hams from Mayence, Westphalia, and Jutland are much esteemed. The best English hams are those of Yorkshire, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The superiority of the Bayonne hams is due to the excellence of the race of Pigs which supply them, and to the good quality of the salt which is extracted from the springs situated at Salies, the chef -lieu of the canton of the Department of the Pyrenees, and with which they are prepared. The excellent hams of Mayence are cured by salting and dipping them in a preservative mixture ; after which they are hung for six weeks in the interior of a chimney, so that they may be thoroughly impregnated by smoke ; ultimately they are placed in layers, in barrels furnished with a chafing dish, in which juniper wood is burnt. The small Westphalia ham is usually smoked for three weeks over a smouldering fire made of juniper branches. A ham fair is held in Paris on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday of the Holy Week. It formerly took place in the square opposite the principal entrance to the Cathedral of Hotre-Dame ; N 178 MAMMALIA. and we find it mentioned in an ordinance of tlie Provost of Paris, dated as far back as tbe 15tb April, 1488. In 1813, it was established on tbe Quai de la Yallee. Prom there it was removed, in 1832, to the forage market in the Fanbourg Saint-Martin. In 1843, it again changed locality to the Boulevard Bourdon, between the Seine and the Place de la Bastille, where this market is still held. We have not yet finished with the innumerable products of the Pig. The hide, after having been tanned, is used by harness- makers, saddlers, and trunk-makers. Bottles for transporting and preserving wine are also sometimes made of pig- skins in Spain. The bristles are employed in the manufacture of tooth-brushes, nail-brushes, paint-brushes, &c. Lastly, the bladders serve for different uses in trade and in domestic economy. France con- sumes annually more than sixty millions of kilogrammes of pork. England and the United States of America probably more. This meat, when it is properly fed, is tender, savoury, full of gravy, and of an agreeable flavour. It is in Italy that we have most appreciated it ; the Pig is reared there under circumstances very favourable for producing agreeable and nourishing human food. At Borne, Bologna, and some other towns in the north of Italy, pork is said to be entirely destitute of the heating properties that it possesses in other parts of the world. During life the Pig is also made useful. Few are ignorant of the fact that it is man’s assistant when searching after truffles. It is principally in Perigord that it renders this service. When it has been trained to hunt for them, from its keen sense of smell, it discovers the precious subterranean champignon with great adroitness. As soon as the Pig has disinterred it, it remains a few moments motionless, similar to a Pointer standing on game ; but if it is kept waiting too long a time, its gluttony frequently gets the better of its training. A Truffle Pig, well taught, is worth about 200 francs. In Ebrmandy, Pigs are often tied to the foot of apple trees, that they may in a manner cultivate them by digging and turning up the soil round their stems. In certain parts of China, Pigs are used as beasts of draught ; it OEDEE OE PACHYDEEMATA. 179 is not rare there to see harnessed to the same plough a Woman; a Horse, an Ass, and a Pig. A point in the history of the Pig which we should not forget is that many ancient legislators forbid its flesh to he eaten. This prohibition was founded on the fact that, in all seasons in hot countries, and in summer in temperate climates, the flesh of these animals is often infested with the eggs and grubs of worms, when, if it is imperfectly cooked, the germs not being destroyed, it is possible for them to become developed in the body of the person who has partaken of it. Diseases resulting from the use of pork thus eaten would have been frequent in Asia, if the public health had not been protected by this salutary prohibition. In our climates it has been established beyond doubt that pork-butchers are more often attacked by Tcenia (tape- worm) than those persons who follow other trades. Moreover, measly Pigs occasion a disease called trichinesis, about which, of late years, a great deal has been written. The trichine is a minute worm, with difficulty visible to the naked eye, for it has scarcely as large a diameter as a very fine hair, and in length is rarely over two millimetres. It is found in the intestines, where it lives and produces its young, which are at first in the grub or worm state. When pork containing the trichine grubs is eaten by Man, these pass into his intestines. But this abode not suiting them, they cut their way out, and get into the veins, when they are carried along with the blood in the circulating torrent, and finally lodge in the muscles. This is the part of the human form which is preferred by the trichine. It gnaws, separates, and dissects the muscular and ten- dinous fibres, producing intolerable pain. This disease has made the greatest ravages in the Horth of Germany, where raw ham is much eaten ; it has also been pre- valent in America. France, however, seems to have enjoyed com- plete immunity from it. Although this epidemic has almost disappeared, we will state the best means for preventing its development. They are as follows : — 1st. "Watch carefully over the food of the Pigs, and never give them animal substances about which there is the least suspicion ; n 2 180 MAMMALIA. 2nd. Inspect carefully the pork, if possible, with a microscope ; 3rd. Cook most thoroughly every piece of pork, bacon, ham, &c., before use. The experiments which have been made to determine the amount of cooking that is necessary to destroy the trichines give the following results : 1st. The trichines are killed in hams by a protracted salting, or, in sausages by subjecting them to strong smoking, continued for twenty- four hours. 2nd. They resist ordinary smoking for three days ; if prolonged, however, it appears to destroy them. 3rd. Cook- ing pork by boiling is not certain to kill them, unless performed most thoroughly. The Wart Hogs ( Phascochcerus , F. Cuvier), which much resemble the true Hogs, are distinguished from them by the structure of their molar teeth. A fleshy excrescence hangs down on each side of their cheeks, which gives them a repulsive appearance. There are several species to be found in Africa, of which country they are natives. They are very courageous, and possessed of immense strength. Their habits are similar to those of the Wild Boar. The Cape Wart Hog, found at the Cape of Good Hope, is probably the best known. Specimens of it are generally to be seen at the Regent’ s Park Gardens, London. The Peccaries (. Dicotyles , F. Cuv.) are animals which are peculiar to America. They resemble the common Pig in their general Fig. 45 ' The White-lipped Peccary {D. labiatus ). shape and in their teeth, but their canine tusks do not project from the mouth. They are devoid of tail, and are provided with a gland opening on the back, from which a penetrating OEDEE OE PAOHYDERMATA. 181 and fetid humour oozes. The two following species are best known : — The Collared Peccary (D. Torquatus ) is eaten in South America, and is considered a wholesome article of food, the gland above- mentioned being cut out immediately after it is killed. The White-lipped Peccary (D. labiatus), Pig. 45, which is found in ! Guana, is larger and more strongly formed than the last mentioned. The Family of Solipedes (Cuvier), Equidje (Gray). — This family is characterised by possessing only one toe or hoof on each foot. It is composed of but one genus, that of the Horse , which comprehends the six following species : the Horse proper, the domestic Ass , the Hemionus (or Dshikketee) , the Dauw (or Peechi), the Zebra, and the Quagga. The Horse. — In the Book of Job, Jehovah, speaking from His throne in the clouds, questions the just man, and, recounting all the wonders of creation, thus describes the Horse : — “ Hast thou given the Horse strength P Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder P Canst thou make him afraid as a grass- hopper ? the glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley and rejoiceth in his strength : he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage : neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha ; and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting” (Job xxxix. 19 — 25). Linnaeus, in a style certainly less biblical, but yet most exact in all its brevity, has written of the Horse : — “ Animal herbivorum, rarissime carnivorum ; generosum, super- bum, fortissimum in currendo, portando, trahendo ; aptissimum equitando ; cursu furens ; sylvis delectatur ; hinnitu sociam vocat ; calcitrando pugnat.” Buffon has left us a portrait of the Horse which all admire, for he depicts most truly and strikingly its character and ways when human art has perfected its natural qualities, and has educated it for service. Let us therefore quote it : — “ The noblest conquest which Man has ever made is that of the 182 MAMMALIA. proud and high.- spirited animal which shares with him the fatigues of war and the glory of the fight. Ho less intrepid than his master, the Horse sees danger and faces it. Accustoming himself to the din of arms, he loves and seeks it, and is excited by a warlike ardour. In the chase, the tournament, and the race- course, he partakes of the pleasures ; brilliant and conscious of his glory, he is as docile as he is courageous, and, mastering his fiery eagerness, restrains his impetuosity. Hot only will he yield readily to the hand which guides him, hut he seems even to consult its wishes ; ever obedient to the impression which he receives, he dashes on, slackens his speed, or stops, doing all at his master’s will. The Horse is a creature which seems to renounce his own independent existence in order to submit to another’s will, which he is able even to anticipate. By the promptitude and precision of his movements he expresses and executes his master’s purpose, feeling and showing his feelings according to his master’s desire. In all his unreserved submission there is nothing he will refuse to do ; he will serve with all his strength, and, going beyond it, will die in order to render a perfect obedience.” The subjection of the Horse to Man may be traced back to the most primitive date. Moses recommends the Hebrews to have no dread, in war, of the Horses of their enemies. We read in the Book of Kings (1 Kings iv. 26) that “ Solomon had 40,000 stalls for his horses, and 12,000 horsemen.” According to the same book, these Horses were bought in Egypt and brought into the country of the Hebrews. Homer, in his Iliad, speaks of the numerous studs of King Priam. The bas-reliefs on the Assyrian monuments afford us a knowledge of the figure of the Horses of Asia Minor ; and the paint- ings of ancient Egypt acquaint us with the fact that their Horses from the valley of the Hile were no less worthy of admiration. The Greeks must have given preference to the Horses of Asia Minor and Egypt, for the splendid remains of statues in the Parthenon prove that, in the age of Pericles, the Athenians were in possession of some magnificent specimens of that race. We learn, indeed, from various ancient authors, that the Horses which appeared in the Olympic Games were brought from Cappadocia and the neighbouring countries. In fact, the inhabitants, or OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 183 rather the kings, along the coast of Asia Minor were zealously addicted to horse-dealing, and they have done their part to spreading far and wide the famed Arab blood. Armenia also furnished Horses to the early dealers of Tyre and Sydom Cyrus collected together in his stables 800 stallions and 1,600 mares. The Humidian Horses were also celebrated for the elegance of their shape and the swiftness of their pace, characteristics pre- served by them to the present day. The invention of the art of horsemanship is ascribed to the Scythians. When that nation made its first appearance in Greece, the inhabitants of Thrace were struck with surprise and dread, imagining that the man and the animal formed one and the same body, unquestionably this is the origin of the Centaurs of mythology. We find the same apprehension and the same dread existing among the American savages, when the natives of the Mexican coast saw for* the first time the troopers of Fernando Cortes disembark upon their shores. The remote epoch to which we can trace back the Horse being employed as a domestic animal renders it very difficult to determine its original country. For a long time it was assumed to be Arabia, but historical facts and other considerations deduced from the nature of the Horse render this hypothesis improbable. At the present day, we are generally led to consider the Horse as originally a native of Asia, and that it appeared for the first time either on the vast central plateau which occupies so large a space in this quarter of the globe, or on the steppes to the north-east of the Caucasus. As the originally wild Horse does not exist in any country, it is quite as impossible to recognise its primeval traces in historic times, as to state with any certainty the native country of the first Oxen, the first Goats, the first Pigs, the first Sheep, or the first Hogs. There are, however, droves of Horses free and unowned living on the plains of Asia and the pampas and prairies of America ; but all zoologists agree in considering them as the descendants of certain domestic races, somewhat modified in their shape and habits by having reverted to a state of liberty. At the date of the dis- covery of the Hew World, it is certain that no animal of the Horse genus existed there ; at the present day, on the contrary, we find immense hordes of them, which, through their wild and ex- 184 MAMMALIA. posed life, have lost many characteristics which were possessed by their progenitors. These Horses, called Tarpans, Mustangs, and Parameros, according to locality, live most frequently in bands of fifteen to twenty, of which only one is a mature male. In the pampas of Paraguay, however, the droves are sometimes composed of more than 10,000 animals. They are controlled by chiefs, who always lead them in travelling as well as in escaping pursuit, and each drove inhabits a particular district, which it defends against the invasion of strangers, and does not abandon unless obliged by deficiency of pasturage, or by the attacks of some of the larger carnivora. The migration of wild Horses crossing the wide plains of the Hew World, almost shaking the ground under their measured tramp, is a spectacle to delight the traveller. Divided into squadrons composed of a stallion and his attendant mares, the column progresses, preceded by their scouts. If these droves should meet with domestic Horses, they invite them by neighings to regain their lost liberty and join their wandering phalanx, a request too frequently accepted. These wild Horses can be broken in for Man’s use, but their struggles are most determined before they are willing to resume the commonplace life which was led by their ancestors. Spaniards and Indians capture wild Horses by surrounding, aud forcing a drove to enter an enclosure, called a coral, where a horseman, armed with a lasso (a long strip of green hide, provided with a noose at one end), or the bailer os (two balls connected by a cord), is placed. In Mexico the former implement is used, in lower South America the latter ; and the skill and address with which these people entangle and throw the objects of their pursuit are truly surprising. However violent and protracted the victim may struggle, it must ultimately succumb, when a leather strap with a slip noose having been placed round its lower jaw, or a villainously cruel Spanish bit in its mouth, an Indian mounts. After making vain efforts to get rid of the Man, the Horse sets off at full gallop, stimulated moreover by the spur. After being ridden till thoroughly exhausted, and its lungs bursting for want of breath, it submits to be led back to the coral. Henceforth it is tamed, or, more properly, broken-spirited, and although left free with the domesticated Horses, does not seek to escape ; for having felt the brand of serfdom, it feels unworthy of liberty. Young Horses are ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 185 generally selected for this mode of breaking, as they give less trouble than those that are aged, and, from their making a less determined resistance, are not so subject to injuries that mature into blemishes, or frequently cause unsoundness. The Horses running free in the plains of Asia may also be broken in. Those which frequent the neighbourhood of the Caucasus are, it is said, the descendants of some troopers which were abandoned by Peter the Great during the siege of Azov, in consequence of a deficiency of forage to maintain them. In addition to these races which have regained their primitive liberty, there are some which form, so to speak, a link between the wild Horse and those which are completely tamed. Among these are the Iceland Horses, which are allowed by their masters to feed on the mountains in full liberty, and are caught only when they are wanted. W e may likewise mention the droves of Horses which the Cossacks of the Hon possess, and which graze in deserts of the Ukraine ; also the Finland Horses, which pass the summer in absolute independence, and in the winter return to their owners’ homes ; lastly, those of the Camargue, which live in full liberty, among the fens and salt-marshes lying round the mouths of the Phone, from Arles to the sea. After this digression as to the various races of wild or semi- wild Horses, we must now give a portrait of the animal, although it is doubtless perfectly well known to our readers, so as to bring more clearly to view the beauty of its structure. In a passage which is somewhat less known than the one we before quoted, Buffon thus expresses himself : — “ Among all the animals the Horse is the one which combines with a considerable bulk the highest degree of perfection, of pro- portion, and elegance in every part of his body ; for if we com- pare the animals which come immediately above and below him, we find that the Ass is ill made, the head of the Lion is too large, the legs of the Ox are too clumsy and short for the size of its body, the Camel is certainly deformed, and that the larger animals — such as the Phinoceros and the Elephant — are, so to speak, nothing but shapeless masses. The regularity in his proportions give the Horse an air of graceful lightness which is well maintained by the beauty of his head and shoulders. In the carriage of his head he appears to desire to rise above his condition of quadruped, and in this 186 MAMMALIA. noble attitude regards Man face to face. His eyes are sprightly and wide opened ; his ears are well made, and of a proper length, without being too broad, like those of the Ox, or too long, like those of the Ass. His mane harmonizes gracefully with his head, and is a handsome appendage to the neck, conferring an air both of strength and spirit. His flowing and bushy tail is an ornamental finish to the extremity of his body. Yery different from that of the Stag, Elephant, &c., and from the bare appendage of the Ass, the Camel, the Rhinoceros, &c., the Horse’s tail is formed of long and thick glossy hair which seems to spring directly from the end of the back. He cannot elevate his tail like the Lion, but, although drooping, it becomes him better, and, as he can readily move it from side to side, it is of great use to drive away the insects which might annoy him ; for although his skin is very firm, and covered all over with thick and close hair, it is, nevertheless, highly sensitive.” It may be useful to specify the terms employed to describe the principal parts of the Horse. These details will not prove altogether superfluous, as some of the words we are about to explain not unfrequently occur in conversation. The two parts of the head of the Horse which correspond to the temples in a man are above the eyes. The eyes themselves have a loose crescentiform fold of the conjunctiva at the inner angle, often erroneously called membrana nictitans, but it neither performs its office or possesses its muscular apparatus. The orbit, which is formed of seven bones, four cranial and three facial, contains the •globe of the eye, on the inner angle of which is situated the liaw (a). Fig. 46 will perfectly supply the means of verifying all these indications. The eye-pits (b) are deep indentations which lie between the eye and the ear, above the eyebrows on each side. The face (c) is the front of the head from the eyes to the nostrils ; this part corresponds to the upper part of a Man’s nose. This name is, however, generally applied to that portion that surrounds the curl or centre on the forehead from whence the hair radiates. The neck of the Horse is designated by the word crest (d) ; it is comprised from one end to the other between the mane on the upper side and the gullet on the lower. The fore-lock (e) is the portion of the mane which is on the top of the head and falls over on the forehead between the eyes. ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 187 The withers (/) is the spot where the shoulders meet up above, between the back and the neck, at the point where the neck and the mane come to an end. The chest ( g ) is that part which is in front between the shoulders and below the throat. The back (h) commences at the withers and extends all along the spine as far as the crupper. When the Horse is fat the whole length of the spine forms a kind of hollow, which is said to be channeled . Fig. 46. — The different parts of the body of the Horse. The space which is included within the ribs is called the barrel (%) ; the name of stomach (j) is also given to the lower part of the body which joins the os sternum and the bottom of the ribs. The flanks lie at the extremity of the stomach and extend as far as the hip bones. The tail is divided into two parts : the stump or dock , and the hair. The upper part of the front leg of the Horse is called the shoulder (m), although it corresponds with the fore- arm in a Man, the fore- arm (n) follows it lower down. 188 MAMMALIA. The joint which is below the fore-arm is called the knee (o) ; it corresponds to the place of the wrist in Man, and forms an angle turning inwards when the leg is bent. The shank (p) forms the second portion of the fore-leg ; it com- mences at the knee joint, and corresponds to the metacarpus in Man. Behind the shank is a tendon, which extends from one end to the other, and is called the back-sineiv. The fetlock-joint ( q ) is the articulation immediately below the shank. The fetlock itself is a tuft of hair covering a sort of soft horny excrescence, which is called the ergot . The pastern (r) is the portion of the leg between the fetlock- joint and the foot. The coronet ( s ) is an elevation lying below the pastern, and is -furnished with long hair falling over the hoof, all round the foot. The hoofs ( t ) form, so to speak, the nails of the Horse, and consist of a horny substance. In order to describe the parts which make up the hind legs of the Horse, we must go back to the haunches. Each of these con- tains the femur , and corresponds to the thigh of a Man. It is, therefore, the thigh of the Horse, which is joined on to the body, and bears the name of buttocks. It is terminated below and in front by the stifle ( k ), which is the joint of the knee containing the knee-pan. It is situated below the haunch, on a level with the flank, and shifts its place when the Horse walks. The highest part of the hind leg, which is detached from the body, is called the thigh, or gaskins (m) , and corresponds to the leg of a Man. It extends from the stifle and lower part of the buttocks down to the hock (o'). The hock is the joint which is below the thigh, and bends forward. This joint represents the instep in a Man; the hinder part of the hock, which is called the point of the hock, is the heel. Below the hock are the shank, the fetlock-joint, the pastern, and the foot, just the same as in the fore-legs. We will now say a few words as to the diversity of colour in the coat of the Horse, in order to fix the meaning of the terms which are generally employed to designate the various hues which the coat presents. OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 189 Bay is a reddish, nut-brown colour, with various shades. Bark bay Horses are of a very dark brown, almost black, except on the flanks and tip of the nose, where they are of a reddish colour. The golden , or light bay, is a yellow sun-light hue. Dappled bay Horses have on their rumps spots of a darker hay than on the rest of their bodies. In bay Horses the extre- mities, the mane, and the tail are always black. There are three kinds of black Horses : the rusty black, which is of a brownish tinge, more or less conspicuous in various lights ; the black, and the coal-black, which is the darkest of all. Ihm-coloured horses, of which there are several shades, are of a yellowish- sandy hue ; the mane and tail of these is either white or black. Some of the latter have a black line along the vertebra, which is called a mule’s, or eel-stripe. Chestnut is a kind of reddish or cinnamon-coloured bay. There are several shades of it, among which are the bright chestnut, which is the colour of a red Cow’s coat ; the common chestnut, which is neither dark nor bright ; the bay chestnut, which verges upon the red ; the burnt chestnut, which is dark, and nearly approaches black. Some chestnut Horses have white manes and tails, others black. The roan is a mixture of red and white. Grey Horses have white hair mixed with black or hay. There are several modifications of this colour ; the dappled-grey , the silver-grey , the iron-grey, &c. Dapple-grey horses have on the the back and other parts of the body a number of round spots, in some cases black, in others, of a lighter hue ; these spots are somewhat irregularly distributed. Grey horses as they increase in age become lighter in colour, ultimately becoming white. Piebald and skewbald horses are white, with large irregular spots and stripes of some other colour irregularly arranged. The different kinds are distinguished by the colour that is combined with the white, as the piebald proper, which are white and black ; the skewbald, which are white and hay ; the chestnut piebald, which are white and chestnut. The Horses which have small black spots on a white or grey coat are called flea-bitten, particularly prevalent in India among Arabs. We have hitherto considered the wild and domestic Horse in common, both as regards their structure and their colour ; in 190 MAMMALIA. short, their outward appearance generally, without noticing the different breeds, which must soon occupy our attention. But before we enter upon the study of the various equine races, it is necessary to give a short explanation as to the way in which the bit regulates the paces of the Horse. By this we are led to speak of the construction of the mouth, a knowledge of which is most useful. The Horse either walks, trots, gallops, or ambles. The paces of the Horse are essentially modified by means both of the bit and spur. The spur excites a quickness of movement ; the hit communicates to this movement a due amount of precision. The mouth of the Horse is so sensitive that the least movement or the slightest impression which it receives warns and regulates the motion of the animal. But to preserve the full delicacy of this organ, it is highly necessary to treat tenderly its extreme sensibility. The position of the teeth in the jaw of the Horse affords to Man the facility which exists of placing a hit in its mouth, by which instrument this high-spirited and vigorous animal is broken in and guided. Let us, therefore, in the first place, study the arrange- ment of its mouth. There are in each jaw six incisors, or fore-teeth, followed on either side by a tush, which is generally deficient in mares, espe- cially in the lower jaw. Hext comes a series of six grinders on Fig. 47. — Dentition of the Adult Horse. a Incisors.— & Tushes or Canines.— c Interval called the bar.— d Molars. each side in both jaws ; these teeth have a square crown, marked with four crescents, formed by the lamince of enamel which are embedded on them. Between the tushes and the grinders there is a considerable space called the bar, which corresponds to the angle of the lips ; and it is in this interval that the hit is placed. 191 It is also by means of tbe teeth that we are enabled to know a Horse’s age — a knowledge wbicb is of the highest utility ; for a Horse increases in value in proportion as he approaches maturity, again decreasing in worth as he becomes older. Up to nine years the age can be determined pretty accurately by means of the changes which take place in the teeth. The foal, at its birth, is usually devoid of teeth in the front of the mouth, and has only two grinders on each side in each jaw (Fig. 48). At the end of a few days, the two middle fore-teeth, Fig. 49. — At three years. Fig. 48.— At eighteen days. or pincers , make their appearance. In the course of the first month a third grinder shows itself, and in four months more the two next fore-teeth also emerge ; within six and a half or eight months the side incisives, or corner-teeth , show, and also a fourth grinder. At this period the first dentition is complete. The changes which take place up to the age of three years depend only on the fore-teeth being worn away more or less, and the black hollows being obliterated gradually by contact with food. In thirteen to sixteen months the cavities on the surface of the pincers are effaced ; they are then said to be razed. In sixteen to twenty months the intermediate fore-teeth are likewise razed , and in twenty to twenty-four months the same thing takes place with the corner -teeth. The second dentition commences at the age of two and a half or three years (Fig. 49). The milk-teeth may be recognised by their shortness, their whiteness, and the construction round their base, called the neck of the tooth. The teeth which replace them have no neck, and are much larger. The pincers are the first to fall out and be replaced by new ones. At the age of from three 192 MAMMALIA. years and a half to four years the intermediate fore- teeth expe- rience the same change, and the lower tushes begin to make their appearance. The corner -teeth are also renewed when between four and a half to five years; the upper tushes likewise pierce the gums, and about the same date the sixth grinder shows itself. A depression, or small hollow, may be noticed on the surface of the crown of the second growth of fore- teeth, just as in the milk- teeth, and these hollows are gradually worn away in the same fashion. The pincers of the lower jaw lose their cavities when the Horse is five or six years old ; the intermediate fore- teeth are the next to raze. The marks in the corner -teeth are obliterated at the age of seven or eight years. The process of destruction of the marks in the upper fore-teeth goes on in the same order, but more tardily. (Figs. 51 and 52). When all these various changes have taken place, the Horse is looked upon as aged (Fig. 53), because the teeth no longer furnish any certain indications as to the age of the animal. Only approximate inferences can now be drawn from the length and colour of the tusks, which become more and more bare and projecting from the gum, &c. The domestication of the Horse appears to date back to the very earliest period of his appearance on earth ; and as this animal adapts itself to every necessity, every want, and every climate, its subjection has resulted in a considerable number of races, distinguished by more or less prominent characteristics of shape, strength, temper, and endurance. Although generally intelli- gent, affectionate, and endowed with considerable powers of OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 193 memory, these qualities in the Horse are essentially modified by education and climate. And for the full development of his intelligence, and his high qualities, it is requisite that Man should be his companion and his friend, as well as his master, hut never his tyrant. Under the whip of an unfeeling driver, the Horse becomes brutalized, and rapidly degenerates, morally even more than physically. The attachment of the Horse for those who treat it kindly is a well-known fact ; anecdotes proving this are numerous and varied, but our limits are too circumscribed to relate more than one, the authenticity of which cannot be doubted. In 1809, in one of the insurrections, the inhabitants of the Tyrol captured fifteen Horses from the Bavarian troops, on which they mounted their own Men. An encounter afterwards took place between the hostile forces ; but at the commencement of it the Bavarian chargers, which had changed their masters, recog- nised their former trumpet-call and the uniform of their old regi- ment, and in an instant darted off at full gallop, in spite of all the efforts of their riders, whom they bore in triumph into the midst of the Bavarian ranks, where the Tyrolese were at once made prisoners. The influence of memory on the Horse is also shown by the sense it retains of injuries and ill-treatment it has suffered. Many a Horse is restive wdth persons who have misused it, while perfectly docile with others, proving a consciousness of good and evil, and a natural insubordination against tyranny and in- justice. Emulation they also strongly possess. In Horse-racing the o iig. 54.. — Arab Hoises. ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 195 conquerors show by their carriage the pride they are inspired with ; the vanquished, on the contrary, are sad and humiliated. Sympathy may also he added, as the following incident, taken from a well-known periodical, will prove : — “ On a cattle station, where the narrator lived, near Ipswich, Queensland, he often noticed two old mares (very old), — the one had a fine foal by her side, the other had none. For many years these aged mares had run together ; in winter they sought the ridges for shelter, in summer the hanks of creeks were their resort. A deserted shepherd’s hut stood by a creek, and on nearing it one day his attention was arrested by the state of agony and despair the foal seemed to he in ; for now he would gallop round the hut, making the whole valley ring with his piteous appeals, and then would timidly approach it, peeping in at an opening, and then, as if in utter despair, scamper back to the creek. When our authority came to the hut one of the mares was outside, standing still, and seemed to take little or no notice of him, while the mother of the foal was lying down (quite natu- rally) inside the building : her posture was just that of a tired horse trying to rest every limb at once. Her ears, inclining forwards, gave her the appearance of being asleep. Feeling sure she was asleep, he touched her with his whip — no move ; again — no stir. So, on closer inspection, he saw she was dead — a death so easy and free from pain that she must have ceased to breathe while sleeping soundly. Her old companion remained upon the same spot, the foal increasing his speed and the eagerness of his cries just in proportion to his hunger. Three days afterwards, accompanied by a stockman, he saw only the foal outside the hut, the old faithful friend had herself gone and laid down close along- side her former companion, and, strange to say, was quite dead also. Their two frames lay, one near the other, in the deserted hut, and the foal has joined a mob of bush horses, and seems to have quite forgotten his kind old mother.” The intelligence of this noble animal is evident in many ways. For instance, in the Arab tent, where it is esteemed and loved as if it were a member of the family ; or in the circus, where it performs a series of prodigies of strength or grace in obedience to the voice of its trainer. The most restive and vicious Horses have been known to submit to the control of children, when the bit, o 2 196 MAMMALIA. whip, and spur, in the hands of an adult, were useless to force them into subjection. By the suitability of its motive powers, the Horse is adapted to two different uses : firstly the saddle , when it carries a rider, either as a means of travelling, or for purposes of war, pleasure, or salutary exercise; secondly, for draught, when it draws burdens of various kinds. Again, there are distinctions between the Carriage-horse, the Heavy Draught-horse, and the Light Draught- horse. The Saddle-horse must possess elegance and activity in all its movements. It must pay immediate obedience to the will of its rider, communicated to it by means of the reins. The Carriage-horse, used in the vehicles of the rich, either alone or in a pair, should combine size, strength, and elegance. It is, therefore, in fact, nothing but a larger saddle-horse endowed with a more considerable bulk in all its parts. The Draught-horse is deficient in features of nobility and dis- tinction that characterise the previous mentioned. Its shape is more massive, and a little clumsy ; the neck is shorter and thicker, while the coat is composed of rougher hair. If we take an animal of average size and weight, with easy paces, combined with energy of temperament, that is able to continue a trot while drawing a heavy burden, we have the type of a Light Draught-horse. This is the stamp of animal used for posting, coach- work, and artillery. The Heavy Draught-horse is endowed with immense muscular development. Its back is wide and short, so as to resist the violent shocks to which it may be subject. Its chest is deep and voluminous, and its limbs and joints are in proportion to the size of the body. Having considered the four types which are adapted by their conformation for special economic functions, we will now glance at the various races of the Horse family. Following M. Sanson, author of an excellent work on the Applications de la Zootechnie, we shall divide them into two great classes, that of Thorough-bred or Blood Horses, and those of ordi- nary or common Horses. Honour to whom honour is due ; we will therefore commence our account of the former class by speaking of the Arabian Horse. OKDEB OF PACHYDEBMATA. 197 The Arab, pure from any alliance with other kinds, is the perfect type of beauty and perfection, morally as well as physically. The forehead is wide and flat, the orbital arches are prominent ; the orbital hollows are large and widely separated ; the face short, with a straight flattened and broad nose. The nostrils are wide and open, the lips thin, the cheeks flat, and the mouth small ; the ears small, straight, mobile, and placed at some distance from each other. The eye is prominent, bright, and energetic, and the tout ensemble is mild, yet proud. Such are the principal characteristics which may be noticed in the head of this noble animal. Its height varies in the East from fourteen to fifteen hands. Its colour is generally white, light grey, or flea-bitten, not uncommonly chestnut, rarely black or bay. Its straight neck and large and strong joints serve as points of connection to muscles of vast power, which stand out under a glossy, short-haired, silky coat, underneath which, in every direction, can be distinctly traced the veins. Its .chest is wide, its legs handsome and sinewy, and its foot is terminated by a hard hoof. Combining, as it does, both strength and agility, it is able to travel habitually immense distances, and is a better weight carrier for its height than any other race extant. As the Arabian Horse transmits to posterity its high qualities, together with its generous blood, it is looked upon as the source from which the whole equine race obtained improvement. Reared under its master’s tent, and forming a part of his family, the Arabian Horse manifests an unchangeable attach- ment and fidelity for him. The Arab, on his part, would make any sacrifice for the sake of his Horse, and in order to produce and preserve these admirable qualities, he deems no amount of labour trouble. The genealogy of each Horse is strictly preserved, and its details are as authentic as those of the proudest families of our nobility, for some of their pedigrees may be traced back in all due form for more than four centuries. The Arabs, indeed, go so far as to attribute a pedigree of two thousand years to the noble race of Horses which they call Kochlani. This has formed a theme for some of the most beautiful oriental verses. The following is the manner in which an Arab colt is reared. When a suckling, it is supplied with camel’s milk, in addition to that of its mother’s. As soon as its teeth are able to masticate, Fig. 55. — English Race-horses. ORDER QF PACHYDERMATA. 199 it is given bruised and softened barley, and after it is weaned it grazes on the tenderest grass, although barley forms its staple support. All the inhabitants of the tent lavish on it their caresses, just as if it were a child belonging to the family. When its back gains strength it is at first mounted by a child, and gently exercised ; it then carries in succession the child, the youth, the grown Man, and the warrior. Its limbs and its joints are objects of the most constant solicitude while being gradually trained to endure fatigue and privations of hunger and thirst. The Arab, in fact, identifies the courser with his own existence, and thus the nobility of its race, the mode of its education, the affection with which it is surrounded, make it at the same time the most beauti- ful, the most abstemious, the most docile, the most loving, and the most intelligent of all the equine race, while it is the best fitted for long and rapid journeys. According to M. Sanson, the breed of English Horses called Thorough-breds, springs from animals of Arab lineage, which were introduced into England, and modified in their original aptitudes by different uses, particularly that of Horse-racing. Into France also they have been imported, together with the practice of the latter sport.* The typical characteristics of the English racer differ but little from those of the Arabian Horse. It is, therefore, according to the same author, an error. to look upon the English racer as forming an independent breed. The next point is, how did the Arabian Horse come to be introduced into England P The first foreign stallion which is mentioned in ancient chronicles as being imported into England, is the “ White Turk,” which was purchased by James I. from a M. Place, who subsequently became Crom well’s Master of the Horse. Villiers, first Duke of Buckingham, then introduced “Helmsley’s Turk,” and afterwards “ Fairfax’s Morocco.” But, generally speaking, this genealogy is not traced back beyond the commencement of the last century, beginning with the “ Harley Arabian,” a horse born in Syria, of the highest lineage. Among its descendants, we shall content ourselves with mentioning the famous “ Eclipse,” which still remains in memory the most perfect type of a Pace-horse. More than twenty years after the introduction of the “ Darley * Applications de la Zootechnie , p. 4. 200 MAMMALIA. Arabian,” Lord Grodolphin admitted into bis stud tbe celebrated “ Grodolpbin Arabian,” a stallion, which was purchased for a very small sum in Paris, where it was drawing a water-cart. Eugene Sue, in one of bis romances, has related tbe pathetic story of its life. “Lath,” one of its progeny, was tbe most distinguished Horse of bis day. Tbe English Pace-horse (Fig. 55), then, possesses but certain minor peculiarities, by means of wbicb it may be distinguished from its oriental type. First, it is taller, and tbe lines of its body are more elongated and rounded. Tbe exercises of tbe race-course have lengthened its thigh, raised its croup, and communicated to these parts a special shape. Its frame is throughout more lengthy than that of the Arabian, and bay and chestnut, with their diverse shades, have become its prevailing colours. The special qualities of this English Horse are the result of the combined action of climate, education, and use. But the sport of racing dates back to a time far anterior to the introduction of any Arabian stallions ; for an English author of the twelfth century speaks of Horse-races which were established, in his time, in Smithfield. Again, we read of their frequent occur- rence in the reign of Charles I., and the promulgation of regula- tions for their guidance in the last year of the reign of James I. Since that time they have always been kept up in England. Much of course is due, even among the most celebrated families of English Pace-horses, to the mode of education, or more properly speaking, training, to which the animals are subjected, in order to prepare them for their career. The qualities of lightness and speed have been obtained unquestionably, but it is to be feared, however, at the expense of strength and endurance. We must also add that, in many cases, a race cannot be won without a cruel urging of the steed on the part of the jockey — a class which, now- adays, have assumed an important position in a contest in which the Horse once solely took a part.* As a proof of the exertion a racer will make to be victorious, we will quote the following anecdote from a well-known authority: — “ ‘ Forester/ ” says William Youatt, “ had already won several hardly-contested races ; but on an unlucky day he entered the list with ‘Elephant/ a most extraordinary Horse, belonging to * In Italy it is still the custom to race Horses without jockeys. ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 201 Sir James Shaftoe. The length, of the course was about four miles in a straight line, and, haying run over the level part of the ground, they found themselves ‘ neck and neck * on mounting the ascent. When within a short distance of the winning-post, ‘ Elephant ’ gained a little on ‘ Forester/ and the latter made every possible effort to regain his lost ground ; hut seeing that these efforts failed, with a desperate bound he darted upon his antagonist, and seized him with his teeth, in order to hold him back, and it was with great difficulty he was made to let go his hold. “In 1753 another Horse, belonging to Mr. Quin, on seeing his antagonist pass him, seized the conqueror by one of his limbs, and the two jockeys were obliged to dismount to part their steeds.” The English author from whom we have borrowed these two facts regrets the state of the present system, which requires that the Hace-horse should be so pressed by the jockey, and that every- thing should be sacrificed to speed at the expense of strength, so that the victorious Horse leaves the course with his flanks torn by the spur, his sides running down with sweat, his tendons strained, and, in fact, incapable of further exertion, at least for that day. Men who are competent to judge regret to see that, both in France and England, every effort tends to one aim — an extraordinary rate of speed for a short space of time. It is not by requiring from a Horse the one quality of speed that we obtain vigour and endurance, which, after all, are the most necessary qualities. All our triumphs on the race-course, even those of “ Grladiateur,” winner of the “ Derby,” and the “ Grand Prix de Paris,” only go to prove the existence of a transient quality. Let us pass on to the Horman Horse (Fig. 56). Before the creation of the Administration des Haras , there existed in Hor- mandy a race of Horses which for many years furnished carriage animals to the great lords of olden time. These were of Danish origin ; but the present race is the result of a cross between the Horman or Danish mares and the English thorough-bred, the results show the characteristics of both stocks. They are bred in two districts in Hormandy : one the plain of Caen, comprising the grassy meadows of Calvados and La Manche ; the other is situated in that part of the Department of Orne which bears the 202 MAMMALIA. name of Merlerault. Hence were derived tlie successful Hace- liorses of former years, before tbe introduction of tbe English animal, such as “Surprise/’ “Vermouth,” “ Fille de l’Air,” “ Eclipse,” &c. The district of Cherbourg produces an excellent race of Horses, of a strong constitution and great powers of endurance, on the j mares of which the farmers’ wives of Caux ride to market. On these Hormandy nags the graziers, before the establishment of Fig. 56.— Normau Horse. railways, used to make journeys of several days’ duration, in order to purchase Oxen. These Horses, which walk with high action, and are pure of any cross, are strong, of great substance, and at the same time handsome. In the Landes of Brittany there is a breed of small Horses called Bretons, whose good temper, beauty, hardiness, and strength cause them to be much valued. They are evidently allied to the Arabian type (Eig. 57). These estimable qualities, combined OEDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 203 with, diminutive size, are only met with in those reared in a comparatively wild state ; to increase their height they have been crossed with English stallions. On the Atlantic sea-coast, between the embouchure of the Loire and Gironde, there once existed immense marshes, which were devoted to the breeding and rearing of Horses. This is the district where the stout-built mares, with long and narrow heads and bulky limbs covered with hair, were first bred, and which, when crossed with Anglo-Norman stallions, produced the chargers which were found best suited to mount the French cavalry. We shall not notice here the Horses of Lorraine, Alsace, Champagne, and Burgundy, which are not distinguished by any special or strongly-marked characteristics. We will only mention the Limousin breed, which supplied the most elegant and valued Saddle-horses for our ancestors. They were, it is said, the descendants of Arabian Horses left by the Saracens, after their conquest by Charles Martel. This active and high-spirited race, 204 MAMMALIA. which was slender in shape, with fine and sinewy limbs, has been spoiled, according to M. Sanson, by being crossed with the English type. The Horses of Auvergne differ but slightly from the Limousin breed, although they are somewhat modified, better fitting them for a mountainous country. Their appearance is also not so pleasing ; their height is less, and the croup is shorter and lower than in the former. They are, however, excellent servants, abste- mious and docile in their habits, full of spirit and vivacity, having a strongly-marked characteristic. It seems an acknowledged fact, that the influence of the English stallions has been injurious in this district also, the progeny having a tendency to become vicious. The Horses of the Landes of Aude and Camargue are all descended from the Arab type. They are smaller than those of Limousin and Auvergne, and less to be admired for shape ; but they possess the same energy, combined with a kind of wild independence. They are natives of the uncultivated districts adjacent to the Mediterranean. The following, according to M. Gayot, are the characteristics of the Camargue Horse : — In England he would be denominated a pony, for “ He is small, his height measuring from thirteen to thirteen hands and a half ; it is but seldom that he is tall enough to reach the limit for a light cavalry charger. His coat is always of a greyish white. Although the head is large, and sometimes ‘Roman-nosed,’ it is generally squarely made and well set on ; the ears are short and widely separated, the eyes are lively and well opened, the crest is straight and slender, but sometimes ewe- necked ; the shoulder is short and upright, but yet the withers are of a sufficient height ; the back is prominent, the reins wide, but long, and badly set on ; the croup is short and drooping, the haunches are poor, the hocks narrow and close, but yet strong ; the foot is very sure and naturally good, but wide, and sometimes even flat. The Camargue Horse is active, abstemious, mettlesome, high-spirited, and capable of enduring both bad weather and fasting. For centuries he has maintained the same type, not- withstanding the state of distress to which he is sometimes reduced by carelessness and neglect.” * These small Horses are kept in the marshes and wild meadows * Guide du Sportsman , or Traite de V Entrainement et des Courses de Chevaux. . ORDER OE PACHYDERMATA. 205 which, stretch away from Arles to the sea. They live in perfect freedom, in small droves, together with semi-wild Oxen. In harvest time they use these Horses for thrashing out the grain ; they are led in upon the thrashing-floors, and are made to stamp upon the sheaves to heat out the corn from the ears. Their hard hut elastic hoof forms an excellent flail. When they have done their allowance of work they are permitted to return to their independent existence, to roam and feed over the wide expanse of uncultivated districts which surround their homes. The breed of Camargue Horses is, as a rule, but little valued, even in the south of France. The best of them are, however, occasionally sent into the market. It is stated that these Horses are the descendants of some of those left by the Moors in one or other of the frequent descents and incursions made by them on the south coast of France during the early years of history. The Barbary race of Horses, which was introduced on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, has produced the Pyreneean breed, 205 MAMMALIA. F;g 59.— Russian Horse. lusian. A cross from the same race and the Arab also exists in the Pyrenees under the name of Havarrine. Its forehead is large and slightly prominent, its face is short and wide, and the brow is projecting in a line with the orbits ; its nostrils but little opened ; the mouth small ; the eye large ; the ear straight and finely cut ; the expression calm when the animal is at rest, but lighting up during the time of action. This breed is but diminutive in size, but carries a high crest adorned on which we shall not dwell. Fig. 58 represents the Pyreneean Horse, sometimes called the Horse of Tarbes, on account of the splendid studs which have been established in the neighbourhood of that city, which have produced some of the most beautiful animals of the breed. The Barbary breed of Horses, or the Barb, which is a native of Algeria and Morocco, is found among the settled Arab tribes, and also among the Kabyles. Having been introduced into Spain by the Arabs and the Moors, this type there assumed the name of Anda- OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 207 with a long and silky mane. Its limbs are strong and well set under it; tbe back and tbe reins are short and wide, and tbe tail is bushy. Its coat varies in colour, but is generally grey. These Horses, although small, are powerful, docile, and abstemious. During the Crimean campaign the French and English Horses were decimated, whilst the Barbs, which were ridden by the Chasseurs d’Afrique, endured with impunity every hardship. We must not omit to mention the Russian Horses (Fig. 59), a Fig. 60— German Horses. magnificent race, which combines elegance of proportion, height, size, vigour, and suppleness. Many of this breed are remarkable for their speed in trotting, and they all much resemble the celebrities of the American trotting turf. After many inquiries, we are unable to learn if there is any affinity between these similar and equally celebrated strains of blood. Some magnificent specimens of Russian Horses* were exhibited at the Exposition in 1867. 208 MAMMALIA. We have hitherto directed our attention to high-bred Horses alone ; we must now take a glance at some of the commoner breeds, especially those belonging to France, taking for our guide throughout M. Sanson’s excellent work (. Applications de la Zoo- technie) . The Flemish Horse, which is, in fact, as much Belgian as French, is of great height and immense bulk. Its face is very long, narrow, and prominent at the extremity ; the nostrils small ; the mouth large, with flat cheeks ; its ear is thick, long, and slightly drooping ; its eye small ; the crest short and overloaded with mane ; its body long, and croup channeled. Its limbs are very largely made and thickly covered with rough hair. Its feet are large and flat, and its temper is lymphatic. It is but dull at work and devoid of fire ; its strength lying in its enormous weight. This breed, somewhat improved by training, furnishes the brewers of Paris with those colossi of the equine race which are the admiration of all. Frothing can be more beautiful than the type of the German Horse which is represented in Fig. 60. The Horses of the Boulonais breed (Fig. 61) are shaped like the preceding, with the exception of their size and the form of the head. They are easy-tempered, docile, vigorous, and energetic ; their eyes, too, are full of resolution. They are natives of the Department of Pas-de- Calais, and chiefly of the district of Bou- logne. Some of the colts are sent into the districts of Arras, Sainte-Pol, and Abbeville. Others cross the Department of Somme, and are trained in the countries of Caux and Yimeux, being distributed over the Departments of Oise, Aisne, Seine-et- Marne, Eure- et- Loir, and the Seine-Inferieure. The difference of climates and agricultural conditions stamps a variety of modifi- cations on the Boulonais type, chiefly with respect to stature. It is this breed which supplies nearly all the Horses employed in trade in Paris for heavy carriage not requiring speed. We must also mention the Ardennes breed, which furnishes good Draught-horses for artillery, and is very similar in type to the Breton Horse, of which we are about to speak. The Breton Draught-horses have the brow high and square, the face short, with the forehead sunken, nostrils open, mouth small, eye lively, and physiognomy expressive. The mane is double, OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 209 and well furnished with hair, and the tail is bushy. Their limbs are strong, and feet sound. Their paces are quick and easy, constitution good, and temper gentle. The Percheron breed, justly celebrated for ages (Fig. 62), is the model of a light Draught-horse. In the days of mail-coaches and diligences this race was the Post-horse par excellence. At the present time it almost exclusively supplies, together with the Fig. 61. — Boulonais Horses. Breton type, the Horses for the omnibuses of Paris and the rapid carriage of merchandise. The brow of these animals is slightly bulging between the orbital arches, which are prominent. The face is long, with a narrow forehead, straight at the top, but slightly bulging out towards the tip of the nose ; the nostrils are open and mobile ; the lips thick and the mouth large ; the ear long and erect ; the eye lively, and the countenance animated. Their mane is but poorly provided with hair, but the tail is bushy ; the legs are strong and firmly jointed, with rather long shanks devoid of hair. Their coat is generally a dappled- grey colour. p Fig. 62.- OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 211 The farmers in the environs of Mortagne, Bellesme, Saint- Calais, Montdoubleur, and Courtalin breed this race ; but the greatest number come from the Department of Eure-et-Loire, in the dis- trict of Illiers. We may remark, in conclusion, that generally the Horses found in Central France are of a very miscellaneous character, the individuals of which, having been brought there as foals, belong to the various types which we have previously mentioned. Among foreign races, we have already spoken in favour of the Fig. 63.— Shetland Ponies. Bussian Horses. We must also mention the race which are natives of a group of islands situated to the north of Scotland. These are called Shetland Ponies (Fig. 63), and are perfect Horses in miniature. Some of them, indeed, are scarcely as high as a large Newfoundland Dog. Notwithstanding, they are strong, and ^ill endure almost any amount of fatigue and privation. Independent of all the services which the Horse, during its p 2 MAMMALIA. 213 life, renders man, it furnishes him, after death, with a variety of useful substances — such as the skin, the horn of the hoofs, the hair of the mane and tail ; the tendons, from which glue is made, and the bones, which produce animal charcoal. Lastly, we must not omit to make mention of the Horse as an article of food. Every one is acquainted with the efforts which, during the last year or two, have been made (and to some extent with success) to introduce horse-flesh for the use of the public. In Paris, and some other cities in France, at the present time, it forms no inconsiderable portion of the nutriment of the poor. Prussia and the north of Europe were the first to set the example in this path of economy. The Ass. — The Ass, like the Horse, is the servant and helper of Man, but its domestication is of a much less ancient date. The wild type of this animal, known under the names of Xiang, Koulan, Onager, or Pziggetai (E. Semionus, Gray), is still a native of many of the Asiatic deserts. In their periodical migrations they come down as far as the Persian Gulf and Hindostan. To the north, they do not go beyond the forty-fifth degree of latitude. They live together in innumerable droves, and travel under the guidance of a leader, whom they obey with intelligent submission. If they chance to be attacked by Wolves, they range themselves in a circle, placing the weak and younger members in the centre, when they defend themselves so courageously with their fore-feet and teeth that they almost invariably come off victorious. The Tartars capture them to improve the breed of their domestic Ass, and also to get possession of their skins ; they also eat their flesh, which is considered excellent. The Wild Ass is endowed with a sure foot and great swiftness, but it is difficult to tame. In order to capture them, snares and nets made of cord are placed around the places where they are in the habit of coming to drink. Larger than the domestic animal, the Wild Ass has a narrower chest, lighter body, and shorter ears. Its legs are also long, the forehead arched, the head lean, which it carries erect, like the Horse. The top of the head, the sides of the neck, the flanks, and the croup are of a dun colour, with stripes of dirty white ; the mane is black ; there is a coffee-coloured line along the back, ORDER OF PACIIYDERMATA. 213 which widens on the croup, and, in tlie males only, is crossed by another band on the shoulders. In the books of Moses the Wild Ass is mentioned, so that it was well-known to the ancients. It also figured in the festivals which the Roman emperors gave to the people, to make them forget the loss of their liberty and their grandeur. The Domestic Ass (Fig. 64), a degenerate offspring of its wild ancestor, is generally mouse- coloured or silvery grey, mixed with darker shades. Upon its back a black longitudinal dark stripe, crossed over the shoulders by another of similar colour, may be almost invariably found. Its ears are very long, and the tail is tufted at the termination. If we compare the Horse and the Ass as regards general appearance and carriage, we immediately observe that the head of the Ass is larger in proportion to its body; its ears much more elongated, the forehead and temples more covered with hair ; its e}res are more deeply sunk, the upper lip more pointed, in fact, pendent ; the crest more thick- set, the limbs less upright, and the chest narrower. The back is convex and the spine projecting ; the croup is fiat and drooping, and the tail is bare for three- quarters of its length, while the difference in its carriage is still more apparent. If we add to all this, that the vocal utterance of the Horse is a. neigh, marked with considerable power and pride, whilst that of the Ass is a discordant bray, we may perhaps be led to depreciate too much this poor animal. It is, nevertheless, worthy of occupying a large place in our esteem. We must, in the first place, bear in mind that the Ass is not a degenerate Horse, but that it constitutes a distinct race, has its own special individuality and characteristics, and consequently we ought to pass j udgment upon it without any odious comparisons. “ Why,” says Buffon, very justly, “ is there so much contempt for an animal so good, so patient, so abstemious, and so useful ? Can it be that men despise, even in animals, those who serve them too well and at too little expense P We confer on the Horse a degree of education ; he is cared for, he is trained, and he is exercised, whilst the Ass is handed over to the mercy of the lowest servant, or to the malice of children, and, so far from improving by education, he must almost always be the worse for it ; if he did not possess a large supply of good qualities he would, Fig. 64. — Domestic Ass ( Equus Asinus , Linn.), male and female. OEDEE OEPACHYBEEMATA. 215 in fact, lose all in consequence of the treatment which he receives. He is too frequently the plaything, the butt, and the drudge of his owner, who drives him, beats him, overloads him, and tires him out, without care and without mercy. There seems to be no attention paid to the fact that the Ass would be the best and most useful of animals, if there had been no such animal in the world as the Horse.” While the Horse is full of pride, impetuosity, and ardour, the Ass is mild, humble, and patient, and bears with resignation the most cruel treatment. Most abstemious in its habits, it is content with the coarsest herbage, which other beasts will not touch, even such as thistles and weeds. A small quantity of water is sufficient for it, but this it requires pure and clear. It will not, like the Horse, wallow in mud or water ; and as its master too often forgets to groom it, it performs this duty by rolling itself on the turf or the heather when opportunity offers. It has sharp-sight, an excellent sense of smell, and an ear of keen acuteness. If it is laden too heavily it remonstrates by drooping its head and lowering its ears. “ When it is teased,” says Buffon, “ it opens its mouth and draws back its lips in a disagreeable manner, giving it a mocking and derisive air.” The Ass walks, trots, and gallops like the Horse, but all its movements are shorter and slower. Whatever pace it employs, if too hardly pressed, it soon becomes tired ; if not hurried, it is most enduring. It sleeps less than the Horse, and never lies down for this purpose except when worn out with fatigue. Buffon says that it never utters its long and discordant cry, which passes in inharmonious succession from sharp to flat and from flat to sharp, except when hungry, or desirous of expressing amorous feelings. Attaching itself readily and sincerely, it scents its master from afar, and distinguishes him from all other persons, manifesting joy when he approaches. It recognises without difficulty the locality which it inhabits, and the roads which it has frequented. When young, it cannot fail to please by its gaiety, activity, and gracefulness ; but age and ill-treatment soon render it dull, slow, and headstrong. The Ass carries the heaviest weight in proportion to its size of all beasts of burthen; it costs little or nothing to keep, and 216 MAMMALIA. requires, so to speak, no care ; it is a most useful auxiliary to the poor man, more especially in rugged mountainous countries, where its sureness of foot enables it to go where horses could not fail to meet with accidents. It is, therefore, the Horse of those of small means ; the abstemious and devoted helper of the poor. It suffers with resignation under the tyranny of its oppressors. Who has not witnessed with feelings of compassion the coal-mer- chants of Burgundy, driving them along the roads, punishing Fig. 65.— Male and female Ass (common breed). them at every step, so as to cause their hacks to become denuded of hair, and covered with revolting ulcers. When used as a riding- animal by children, or to draw the mistress of the house to hear mass, its destiny is, possibly, less precarious, and less unbearable. In energy, in nervous power, and in temperament, the Ass even surpasses the Horse. It is also superior to the latter in docility, abstemiousness, and capacity to endure fatigue. How, then, does it come to pass that this animal — so useful and devoted, the servant of the weak, the Horse of the poor man — should have OEDEE OF PACHYDEEMATA. 217 acquired a reputation which is become proverbial for foolishness and obstinacy P Enough praise cannot be lavished on the bril- liant Bace-horse ; but for the humble creature of which we are speaking there is nothing but abuse and blows. How ungrateful and capricious does Man appear to be in his loves as well as his hates ! How often may he be seen treading under foot the simplest rules of justice and common sense, even without motive, and to the injury of his own interests ! According to M. Paul Gervais,* the principal varieties of the Ass are, (1) the Thibetian Ass ; (2) the Persian Ass (the latter, which has a reddish coat, often has wild blood in its veins, is much valued in Persia on account of its strength and activity ; great care is taken of it, as it is of considerable pecuniary value ; but it is more headstrong than those of other races — whence comes the proverb, “ Stubborn as a red Ass ”) ; (3) the Tuscany Ass, which is as large as a mule; (4) the Sicilian Ass, a little less in height ; (5) and an Ass, to which the Mahrattas give the name of Gudha, which is not larger than a Newfoundland Hog, &c. Among the Asses which are natives of our climate, M. Sanson, in his Zootechnie , recognises two breeds, one of which comes from the East, whilst the other has inhabited from time immemorial the south of Europe, especially the Balearic Isles and Catalonia, where it still flourishes. It is necessary, therefore, to distinguish as varieties of the asinine species, the Common breed, which is found everywhere in the East, and that which is called the Mule breed, differing from the other in the shape of the skull, in its short, thick, and wide head, and its more massive neck and shoulders. In size, and in other respects, the Ass varies according to the locality in which it is bred. In the southern districts of France its shape is rather slender ; in Poitou, on the other hand, it attains the highest degree of development, being thick- set and well placed on its limbs ; its croup is rounded and short, the whole showing an abundance of muscular development. This is the race principally sought after for stallions by the breeders of mules. Its coat, which is of a dark shade, varies from a brown bay to pure black. In the south of France the Ass has generally close short hair ; but in Poitou the Ass is very shaggy, and cnnooisseurs set a value on this mark of beauty. * Histoire Naturelle des Mammiferes, Paris, yoL ii. p. 150 218s MAMMALIA. The flesh of the Ass has a disagreeable taste, so that it never can become popular as public food ; hut that of their foals, on the contrary, is very tender, and differs hut little from veal. As a strengthening agent, or as a mild and light article of food for invalids, the milk of the Ass has long been considered excellent. The Greeks of antiquity made use of it for this pur- pose. It contains more lacteous and less caseous matter than Cows’ milk ; but it should invariably be taken from a young and healthy animal in good condition, which has been fed abundantly on wholesome food. The Ass is also of considerable service to us after its death. Its skin, which is very hard and elastic, is employed for various purposes. For instance, in making drums, sieves, excellent shoes, parchment for memorandum books, tablets, &c., &c. The skin of the Ass is also preferred by collar-makers and saddlers for the various pads used in harness. The Ass and Mare produce a mixed breed, which participates in the shape and characteristics of the two species from which they proceed. This cross does not, however, constitute an inter- mediate race, as they are unable to reproduce. The cross between the Ass and the Mare is called a Mule. In its size and neck and shoulders, the Mule inherits the fine shape of the Mare. From the Ass it derives the length of its ears, its almost naked tail, its sure-footedness, and strong consti- tution. Its hair is short, rough, and generally of a brownish black colour ; there are, however, many Mules which have grey or chestnut coats, with a stripe along the back of dark hair, as well as bands of the same shade around the limbs. It is a long-lived animal, even occasionally reaching the age of forty-five to fifty years. Almost omnivorous in reference to herbage, Mules have an advantage that cannot be too highly valued ; moreover, a level country or mountainous region equally suits them ; provided neither are too damp. Although patient, it will not submit to ill-treatment without bearing malice. A fine, large, serviceable stock of Mules are to be found in the Department of Deux-Sevres ; those that are met with in Spain and Italy are often brought from there. The Departments of La Yendee and Charente furnish those which are employed in the carriage of merchandise over the most difficult passes of the ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 219 Alps and Pyrenees. Mnles bred in the Departments of Jura, Herault, Aveyron, and Isere are used chiefly for agricultural labour. In the south of France this animal is an important auxiliary to the farmer, performing most of the hard work which is required from Oxen in the centre and north of France. The Wild Ass, Kiang, Dshikketee (. Hemionus , Cuvier), Fig. 67, in its shape and proportions, takes the middle place between the Horse and the Ass. This, indeed, is implied by its name, derived Fig. 66.— Mules. from the Greek word rjfunvoc, meaning Semi-ass. It resembles a Mule, but its legs are more slender, and its carriage is lighter. The general colour is dun, the mane and dorsal stripe black, and the tail is terminated by a black tuft. This animal inhabits, as we have before stated, the sandy deserts of Asia, especially those of Mongolia, or the plains north of the Himalaya, and lives in droves, which are often composed of more than a hundred indi- viduals. Enduring and swift, they are very difficult to approach, and, as both its hide and flesh are much sought after, traps are OEDEE OE PACHYDEEMATA. 221 employed to catch it, or it is shot by lying in ambush behind some eminence near the salt meadows, which it loves to frequent. In 1838, M. Dussumier, a ship-owner of Bordeaux, procured for the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, three adults, a male and two j females. These animals had never figured in this menagerie before, and since that time no other individual of the breed has been brought there ; hut the three specimens which they possessed i were not long before they bore young. Not only did they mul- tiply, but were crossed both with male and female Asses. When the question arose as to utilising this animal, it was for a moment feared that it would be impossible either to break or train it ; at the present day, however, we know differently ; for one from the Jardin des Plantes in a few months’ handling became sufficiently docile to be driven from Paris to Versailles. Accord- ing to M. Richard (du Cantal), they present no more difficulty i in breaking than Horses which are reared in our meadows, and I permitted to run at large to the age of four or five years. Two i individuals from the menagerie of the Museum, which were entrusted to the care of M. de Pontalba, were ridden without difficulty after a very short tutelage. Zebra (. Equus Zebra, Linn.). — The Zebra is larger than the Wild Ass, sometimes attaining the size of a mature Arab Horse. The richness of its coat, which almost every one has had an opportunity of admiring at the J ardin des Plantes in Paris, and the Zoological Gardens in London, both of which institutions possess living specimens, would suffice to distinguish this creature from every other species of the same genus. The ground colour is white tinged with yellow, marked with stripes of black and of blackish brown. This elegant animal is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and probably the whole of southern, and a part of eastern, Africa. Travellers state that they have met with it in Congo, Guinea, and Abyssinia. It delights in mountainous countries, and, although it is less rapid than the Wild Ass, its paces are so good that the best Horses are alone able to overtake it. The Zebra lives in droves, but is very shy in its nature ; it is endowed with powers of sight that enable it to perceive from great distances the approach of hunters. It is, consequently, very difficult to capture a mature living specimen. 222 MAMMALIA. That it is impossible to reduce this quadruped to a domestic state is currently believed. In contradiction, we would state that a female Zebra, which had been caught young, and sent by the Governor of the Cape of Good Hope to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, was so tractable that it allowed itself to be approached and led almost as readily as a Horse. Fig. 63. — The Zebra ( Equus Zebra , Linn.). ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 223 The resemblance which exists between the Ass and the Zebra suggested the idea that a cross might easily be made between them. Mules between the Zebra and the Ass were obtained in England in the time of Buffion, and, at the present day, mules between the Zebra and the Horse. The Zebra was not unknown to the ancients, who called it Hippo-tigris, that is Horse-tiger. An historian relates that the Emperor Caracalla killed on a certain day, in one of the circus combats, an Elephant, a Bhinoceros, a Tiger, and a Hippo-tigris. Diodorus of Sicily speaks of the Hippo-tigris, although in rather obscure terms. The kings of Persia, during certain religious festivals, were accustomed to sacrifice Zebras to the sun, a stock of which were kept by these potentates in some of the islands of the Bed Sea. Quagga. — The Quagga is smaller than the Zebra, and more resembles the Horse in general shape. His head is small, and his ears are short. The colour of head, neck, and shoulders is a dark brown, verging on black ; the back and the flanks are of a bright brown, which on the croup merges into a russet grey. The upper parts of the legs and tail are crossed with whitish bars, the underneath parts are white. The tail is terminated by a tuft of long hair. It is a native of the plateaux of Caffraria, and feeds on grasses and the Mimosa shrub, and lives in droves indiscrimi- nately with the Zebra. It is tamed without difficulty. The Dutch colonists were in the habit of keeping them with their herds, which they defended against the Hyenas. If one of these formidable carnivora threatened to attack the cattle, the domes- ticated Quagga would attack and beat down the enemy with its fore-hoofs, ultimately trampling it to death. The menagerie of the Museum of Natural History in Paris has for some time been in possession of a male Quagga. At the sight of Horses or Asses, this animal would several times utter a shrill cry, which might be pretty nearly expressed by the word Coua-ag ! Dauw or Peetsi (. Equus Burchellii, Bennett). — The Dauw seems to take a middle place between the Zebra and the Quagga. It resembles the former in its shape and proportions, and the latter in the colour of its coat, which is dun on the upper and white on the underneath portions of the body. All the upper parts are streaked with dark bands, which are transverse in front and oblique 224 MAMMALIA, behind. The tip of the muzzle is black, and from this point spring four stripes of the same colour. The markings on the neck are continued up into the mane, which does not fall down over the crest, as in the horse, but is stiff and straight like that of the Zebra. This quadruped (Fig. 69) is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and doubtless of many of the mountainous districts of Southern Africa. It lives in arid and desert localities, in droves, and is shy. Fig. 69. — The Dauw or Peetsi ( Equus Burchellii, Bennett). capricious, irascible, and difficult to tame. The Dauws in the Menagerie of the Museum of Natural History in Paris have pro- duced several young ones. The Wild Ass is the sole undomesticated species of the equine' genus which belongs to the regions of Asia included in Mongolia,. India, and the Himalaya. The Zebra, the Quagga, anc^ the Dauw are the species of the same genus which are peculiar to Africa. THE RUMINANT ORDER. The animals which compose this Order owe their general name to the singular faculty they possess of bringing back into their mouth, in order to re- chew it, the food they have once swallowed. This power is owing to a complicated structure of their stomach, which is divided into several compartments, and which have been considered, though with some exaggeration, as so many distinct Fig. 70.— The four stomachs of a Sheep. stomachs. The first and largest of these divisions is the paunch, b b (Fig. 70), which forms a continuation to the oesophagus (a), and occupies a large part of the abdomen, particularly towards the left side. The food is here accumulated after being roughly con- tused by the first mastication. Q 226 MAMMALIA. After the paunch comes the bonnet or cap of the stomach (c) ; this receptacle is small, and its internal mncons membrane is lined with folds formed by polygonal cellules. In this cap the food is gradually moulded into small pellets, which ascend again into the mouth, by means of a natural movement, and not a con- vulsive or irregular one, as in other animals ; these pellets then undergo a thorough mastication and salivation. Such is “ chewing the cud.” When the food, thus transformed into a soft and nearly fluid paste, descends again into the stomach, it goes straight into a third intestine, called the omasum or leaf (d), on account of the wide longitudinal folds which line the interior of it, much resembling the leaves of a book. From this it at length passes into the digesting stomach, or rennet-bag ( e ), which is the seat of the real digestion, and owes its name to the fact that its irregularly folded internal surface is continually moistened by the gastric juice, a fluid which has, as is well known, the property of curdling milk. After having undergone the digestive process, the food passes from the rennet-bag (e) into the intestine duodenum (/). We must add that liquids pass straight into the digesting stomach without staying either in the paunch or bonnet. Ruminants feed chiefly upon grass, both stalks and leaves, and their dental system is specially adapted to such circumstances. There are no incisors in the upper jaw, and there is an empty space between the lower incisors and the grinders, the crowns of which are wide and marked with two double crescents. At the time of mastication, the movement of the jaws is nearly circular. The feet of all these animals terminate in two toes, the meta- tarsal and metacarpal bones of which are joined together in one bone, called the shank. Sometimes, also, there exists at the back of the foot two small spurs, vestiges of lateral toes. In all these animals, except Camels and Llamas, the hoofs, which entirely cover the last joint of the two toes on each foot, act side by side on a smooth surface, and resemble one single but cloven hoof. Thus the origin of the word cloven-footed. We must remark, in conclusion, that these animals are the only Mammals which are provided with bony extensions of the frontal bones ; but all the Ruminants do not possess these. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 227 Ruminants are divided into two families — the Camels and the Common Ruminants. The Camel Family. — This family comprehends the two genera of Camel and Llama. Camels. — Linnaeus, and with him most modern naturalists, admit of two distinct species in the Camel genus ; the Camel proper, which has two humps on its hack, and the Dromedary, which has only one. The individuals of the Camel genus have a small and strongly- arched head. Their ears are slightly developed, still their sense of hearing is excellent. Their eyes, which have oblong and horizontal pupils, are projecting and gentle in expression, and are protected by a double eyelid. Their power of sight is very great. Their nostrils are situated at some distance from the extremity of the upper lip, and, externally, appear only two simple slits in the skin, which the animal can open or shut at will. No trace is found, round the nostrils of the Camel, of the glandular body which forms the muzzle in other Ruminants, and attains such development in the Ox. Their upper lip is split down the centre, and the two halves are susceptible of various and separate move- ments. These constitute a very delicate organ of feeling. They are also possessed of an extremely acute sense of smell. This remarkable head is carried with a certain degree of nobility and dignity on a somewhat long neck, which, when the animal moves slowly, describes a graceful arched curve. Their peculiar body, made more remarkable by the one or two humps on its hack, is supported on four long legs, which appear slender in comparison with the mass they hear. In the Camel proper the colour of the coat is chestnut-brown, more or less dark. The hair grows to a considerable length, and becomes rather curly on the humps and about the neck. Below the neck it forms a fringe, which descends over the fore-legs. The Dromedary, which is less massive in form and smaller in. size than the Camel, has a coat of brownish- grey, more or less dark ; in some instances it is nearly bay. Its hair is soft, woolly, and moderately long, more especially about its hump and neck. There are, however, peculiarities of coat characteristic of the different races. q 2 ‘228 MAMMALIA. We must not omit to mention the callosities which Camels have on their breast, knees, and insteps, as well as on their patella and heels. Their feet are bifurcated. The two toes on each foot are not enveloped in horn, and have only on the last joint a somewhat short and hooked nail. A hard and callous sole covers the bottom of the toes — a characteristic which enables them to walk with ease on loose sand, where the Elephant would he useless and the Horse soon exhaust its strength. Fig. 71. — Camel’s Head. The Camel is a native of ancient Bactria, now the country of the Usbecks. It principally lives in Asia, where it has been used, from antiquity, for domestic and military service. In Africa, where it is acclimatised, it has doubtless existed since the time of the conquest of that country by the Arabs. The Dromedary is distributed all over a great part of Northern Africa, and the major portion of Asia. It seems originally to have been a native of Arabia. After these considerations on the structure and places of habi- tation of the Camel, we will dwell a little on the immense service THE EUMINANT ORDER. 229 which it renders Man, by means of its strength, rapid move- ments, abstemiousness, patience, and docility. Buffon has said that gold and silk are not the real riches of the East, hut that the Camel is its chief treasure. In fact, this animal feeds the inhabitants of these countries, both with its milk and flesh, and furnishes clothes for them, fabricated from its long and soft hair. For centuries sal-ammoniac, so useful to the manufacturer, was solely obtained from its excrement. But it is chiefly as a means of conveyance and as a beast of burthen that it Fig. 72. — Camel’s Head. renders the most important service to Man. Without it those nations which are separated from one another by vast stretches of desert sand could not trade with each other. Without it the Arab could not inhabit those arid countries in which he dwells. With it, this “ ship of the desert,” as the Eastern nations have called it in their figurative and symbolical language, life is pos- sible even in such places as Buffon has called “ the blank spots in nature.” From time immemorial the Camel has been the only means of bearing commodities across the desert. By means of this patient Fig. 73.— Algerian Camel. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 231 and strong animal merchandise finds its way from the remote countries of Asia as far as the eastern confines of Europe. The rich products of Arabia, ages past, were brought to Phoenicia on the hacks of Camels ; and in our time, in the same way, merchan- dise is borne to Alexandria, from whence it is distributed over the European continent. The better to fit the Camel for its arduous life, the Arab trains it to do without sleep, and to suffer all the extremes of hunger, thirst, and heat. A few days after its birth, its legs are bent under its stomach, and it is compelled to remain crouched upon the ground, laden with a suitable weight, which is gradually increased with its ag;e. As it arrives at maturity, its food is restricted, and given at longer intervals ; it is also practised in running and enduring severe exercise. Its natural abstemiousness, further developed by training, is so great that a Camel laden with from five to six hundred pounds weight, travelling eight or ten leagues a day under a burning sun, receives no other food than a few handfuls of grain, a limited number of dates, or a small pellet of maize paste. The Camel will often go eight or ten days without drinking ; but when the poor animal, after such a fast, approaches a pool of water, it scents it at a great distance, redoubles its pace, and eagerly pushes for the coveted necessary of life, and drinks for the past, the present, and alas ! too often, for a long future. The name of caravan (Fig. 74) has been given to companies formed in the desert by the assemblage of travellers, who thus, through numbers, avoid the insults and robberies of the brigands scattered around and over its immense confines. These caravans use Camels and Dromedaries for their beasts of burthen ; the former are loaded with the baggage and provisions, the latter are reserved to carry the travellers. Each is loaded according to its strength ; and the creatures know so well how much they can carry, that if too heavy a load be imposed, they refuse to stand up, or strike with their heads at those who surround them, uttering at the same time lamentable cries. When all are loaded and ready to start, an Arab, who acts as guide, precedes them, the Camels and the Dromedaries following in line. This guide sings a monotonous and modulated plaintive song, indicating to his attendants by the quickness or slowness of its measure, when they are to increase or THE KUMINANT OKDER, 233 slacken their pace. When the guide’s voice ceases, the whole troop of animals halt, and kneel to be unloaded ; after which they are 1 turned loose to gather the scanty herbage that is usually to be i found in their habitat, except the vicinity should be suspected of ! harbouring dangerous characters. Dromedaries are used in the Sahara, also in other provinces in Africa. Certain stages are performed on them in the journey from Phillippeville to Constantine or to Setif. ; The Camel, also, serves the African as a useful auxiliary in war Fig. 75. — Camel Drivers ot Sahara. and predatory excursions. The Touaregs, especially, make use of it for those purposes. Fig. 76 represents one of that tribe mounted and equipped. We have already said that nature seems to have made every provision to enable these enduring and patient servants to cope with the privations to which they are exposed, indeed, it is believed that a certain quantity of the solid matter placed on their bodies, is an alimentary reserve, which they are enabled to use when in want. This reserve forms the fat excrescences which project on their backs. After a long and fatiguing journey these humps collapse like empty bags, and the whole body immediately afterwards grows thin. Fig. 76. — Camel of Touareg, equipped for War. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 235 The strength and energy of these animals are consequently sus- tained a long time ; hut when much reduced in condition, they only recover their proper form by obtaining abundant and regular nourishment for a lengthened period. The faculty which the Camel possesses of . being able to dis- pense with drinking for a considerable time, has generally been attributed to the fact that it carries internally a reservoir of water, which it uses in cases of necessity. Their digestive organs, like those of other Ruminants, are composed of four dif- ferent stomachs ; the paunch, however, presents a very remarkable peculiarity. It is divided into two distinct bags, one of which is composed of cubical cellules, which form reservoirs ; and when the body of a Camel is cut open, a quantity of water is fre- quently found in these receptacles. It has long been thought that this liquid had been stored there by foresight, and that it is used when occasion requires ; but it seems more reasonable to consider that this water proceeds from a secretion, analogous to the physiological phenomenon which fills the bladders of Fish with air or the urn of the Nepenthe (among vegetables) with water. Llama. — The Llamas are to the New World what Camels are to the Old Continent. They are distinguished from the latter animal by the absence of humps on their backs ; by their two-toed feet only touching the ground at their extremities ; by their soles, which are less flattened ; and their shape, which is more slender and graceful. There are three species of Llama : the Llama proper, the Paca, and the Vicuna. The Llama (Fig. 77) was the only beast of burthen made use of by the Peruvians at the time America was discovered by Euro- peans, and it exists nowhere else in a wild state. It is about the height of an under- sized ITorse ; its head is small and well set ; it has callosities on its breast, knees, and hocks. Its coat is coarse, and varies in colour from brown to black ; occasionally it is grey, and even white. The hair on its body is always longer and more shaggy than on its head, neck, and legs. The ancient inhabitants of Peru made use of this species entirely as beasts of burthen and labour ; but since the introduction of Horses into America their employment has much diminished. 236 MAMMALIA. These animals are, however, very useful for the transportation of ! heavy weights across the mountains and over the difficult roads of the Cordilleras, on account of the wonderful sureness of their | footing. They walk very slowly, and can carry upwards of a i hundred and sixty pounds weight ; but they must not be hurried, for if violence is used to quicken their pace they are certain i to fall down, and refusing to get up, would allow themselves to be beaten to death on the spot rather than resume their course. The climate which this animal prefers is that of plateaux, , from 10,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea, and in these localities the most numerous herds of Llamas are to be found. The natives fold the domesticated ones, like Sheep, in special enclosures near their cabins. At sunrise they are set at liberty to seek their food, under the guidance of the old males. In the evening they return, THE RUMINANT ORDER. 237 frequently escorted by wild Llamas ; but these take every precau- tion to avoid being captured. In more ways than one the Llama is most valuable to the inha- bitants of the Cordilleras ; for the flesh of the young is good and wholesome food, their skin produces a leather of value, and their hair is used for various manufactures. The Paca (Fig. 78) inhabits similar localities to the former. Fig. 78.— The Paca (F. Cuv.) It may immediately be recognised by the development of its hair, which is of a tawny-brown colour, very long on the neck, shoulders, back, flanks, rump, thighs, and tail, and falling on each side of the body in long locks. The fore part of the head and back portion of the belly of this animal are bare ; on the former, from the eyes upwards to the ears, it is generally grey, while the inside of its thighs are white. The Paca is gentle and timid, and allows itself to be led about 238 MAMMALIA. by those who feed and tend it ; but if a stranger attempts to take liberties with it, it kicks viciously, or ejects its saliva over him. Its food is similar to tbat of Sheep ; and its wool is very fine, elastic, and long. The Vicuna, F. Cuvier (Fig. 79), is the smallest species of the Pig. 79. — Vicuna attacked by a Cougar. Llama genus. It is the same size as a Sheep, and strongly ! resembles the Llama, only that its shape is more elegant. Its legs, which are longer in proportion to the body, are more slender, and better formed ; its head is shorter and its forehead THE RUMINANT ORDER. 239 wider. Its eyes are large, intelligent, and mild ; its throat is of a yellowish colour ; its breast, the lower part of its belly, and the inside of its thighs are white, while the remainder of its body is brown. The rich fleece of this animal surpasses in fineness and softness any other wool with which we are acquainted. In order to obtain possession of its skin the American hunters pursue it even oyer the steepest summits of the Andes, when, by driving, they force them into pens, composed of tightly stretched cords, covered with rags of various colours, which frighten and prevent the prey attempt- ing to escape. One of these battues sometimes produces from five hundred to a thousand skins. Instead of destroying the Yicunas, the proper course would be to make them submit to the yoke of Man ; for great profit might be derived from their fleece. A great many attempts have been made to acclimatise the two last-mentioned species in France. If the French were to succeed in introducing Llamas on the Pyrenees, the Alps, the mountains of Yosges, and the Cevennes, &c., they would become an impor- tant source of wealth. With this view, the Jardin des Plantes and the Jardin Zoologique d* Acclimation, at Paris, have reared -a large number. Family of Common Ruminants. — This natural group compre- hends the greatest number of Ruminants. The feature which dis- tinguishes the animals composing it, not only from the Camel family, but also from all the other Ruminants, is the existence of two horns on the forehead of the male, and sometimes of the female. The structure of these appendages presents various characteristic differences, and has caused the division of this large and important family into three tribes, namely, Ruminants with hairy and per- manent horns, hollow-horned Ruminants, and Ruminants which shed their horns. It has been thought necessary to form a fourth division in the same family, comprehending Common Ruminants without horns. This division only contains the genus Musk-Deer (. Moschus , Linn.) Ruminants with hairy and permanent horns. — This tribe consists of a single genus, that of the Giraffe, which has also but one species. The height of the Giraffe ( Cervus Camelopardalis , Linn.), the 240 MAMMALIA. singular proportions of its body, the beauty of its coat and the peculiarity of its gait, are sufficient to explain the curiosity which these animals have always excited. Its long and tapering head is lighted up by two large, animated, and gentle eyes ; its forehead is adorned with two horns, which consist of a porous, bony substance, covered exter- nally with a thick skin and bristly hair. In the middle of the forehead there is a protuberance of the same nature as the horns, but wider and shorter. The ears are membranous, are in the shape of a cornet, and are somewhat turned back. The nostrils do not open in a muzzle, that is to say, the skin which surrounds them is not bare, like that of the Ox. The lips are long and mobile, and the upper one is not split like that of the Camel. Its long dark tongue frequently is ejected from its mouth, and the animal delights in licking its lips and nostrils. The head of the Giraffe is supported by a very long neck, which, however, unlike that of other Mammals, is composed of but seven vertebrae. Along the neck is a short, thin mane, which extends from the occiput to the withers. The body is short, and the line of the backbone is very sloping. Its fore- quarters are higher than the hinder — a feature which is observed in the Hyaena. Its legs are most extensively developed in the shanks, as well as in the fore- arms and tibiae, and are terminated by cloven hoofs, which have no rudimentary toes. The tail, which is of a moderate length, is terminated by a tuft of blackish hair. The skin, which is of a very light fawn-colour, is covered with short hair, marked with large triangular or oblong spots of a darker shade. These markings are not found on the inside of the limbs or on the shanks and belly, which are almost pure white. Giraffes are only found in Africa, and even there they are not numerous. They live in families of from twelve to sixteen members, sometimes, but rarely, more. They frequent the verge of the deserts, and are met with from the northern limits of Cape I Colony to Nubia. The usual pace of the Giraffe is an amble, that is to say, they move both their legs on one side at the same time. Their mode of progression is singular and very ungainly. At the same E 242 Mammalia. time as they move their body their long neck is stretched forward, giving them an excessively awkward appearance. When at rest, their neck enables them to reach with their tongue the leaves on the tops of high shrubs, which constitute a large part of their food. In menageries Giraffes are fed, like other Ruminants, on corn, maize, carrots, and fodder. When in a wild state, the foliage of several species of Mimosa forms their principal support. Their disposition is as gentle as their appearance. Hor do they generally take flight at the sight of a human being, unless approached too closely. When taken captive, the Giraffe is docile even to timidity. If it is teased it never gives way to temper, makes no hostile movements with its horns, but only paws the ground with its fore-feet, rarely, but occasionally, kicking after the manner of a Horse at the object which has provoked its hostility. It is very difficult, almost impossible, to take a mature Giraffe alive ; for they run with such speed and with a succession of such wonderful bounds, that the swiftest Horses can scarcely overtake them. In order to capture them, the period when the young are sucklings is selected, when, if the captor is fortunate enough to keep the youngster alive for a few days, it becomes quiet, and even tame ; but very often the poor captive refuses all nourishment, and dies in consequence. The chief enemies of the Giraffe are the Lion and Panther. In the open plain it distances them with ease ; but if it is sur- prised from ambush by one of these Felidae, although it exhibits both courage and strength in resisting its assailant, striking with its fore-feet with such force as to prove occasionally fatal to the foe ; but too frequently its efforts are unavailing. The Giraffe must number Man also among its enemies. The Hottentots hold its flesh in high esteem, and with its thick skin they .make straps, vessels, and leather bottles to hold water. By lying in wait for it at a favourite feeding or watering-place they shoot it with poisoned arrows. The more frequent use of fire- arms in hunting this beautiful animal will certainly before long lead to a complete annihilation of these wonderful and docile creatures. The ancients were acquainted with the Giraffe. The Hippardion of Aristotle is the Giraffe badly defined ; in the Egyptian THE EUMINANT OEDEE. 243 paintings or bas-reliefs which have been handed down to ns, there are figures which represent it; Pliny, Oppian, and Helio- dorus also make mention of it. The Romans possessed living specimens of this animal, which they exhibited in their circuses, and it appeared in the procession of the “ Triumph.” Several Giraffes were introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Buffon was unable personally to examine this animal ; but the illustrious traveller, Levaillant, who died almost in poverty, after having sacrificed his fortune to long and perilous journeys in Africa, sent to the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, the first stuffed Giraffe which that institution possessed. Levaillant thus gives a description of the chase by which he became possessed of this rare animal :*■ — “ I began one day to hunt at sunrise, in the hope of finding game to add to my provisions. After hours of riding, I per- ceived on a brow of a hill seven Giraffes, which my Bogs immediately attacked. Six of these immediately took flight in the same direction, but the seventh, surrounded by my Hounds, went off another way. At this moment my companion was walking and leading his Horse by the bridle ; in less than a second, he was in his saddle and pursuing the herd. I followed the single one with all speed ; but, notwithstanding the efforts of my horse, it gained so much on me that, on turning a corner of a hillock, it was quite out of sight, so I relinquished the pursuit. My Bogs, however, were not long in reaching it ; for they soon came so near as to force it to come to a halt to defend itself. From where I was I heard them baying ; and as the sounds seemed all to come from the same place, I conjectured that the Hounds had driven it into a corner, so immediately hurried towards the spot. “ I had scarcely, indeed, topped the acclivity, when I perceived the Giraffe surrounded, and endeavouring to keep off’ its assailants by kicking. Having dismounted, with one shot from my rifle I knocked it over. “Belighted with my victory, I was returning on foot to call my people round me to skin and cut up the animal. While I was looking for them I saw Kdaas B aster, who was eagerly making signs to me, which at first I could not in the least understand. * Second' Voyage dans V Inter ieur de VAfrique , tome ii. p. 220. n 2 ■244 MAMMALIA. But on looking in tke direction in wkick ke was pointing, I perceived, with surprise, a Giraffe standing up under a large ebony tree, and attacked by my dogs. I tbougbt it was another one, and ran towards it, but found it was tbe animal I bad first attacked, wbicb bad managed to get up again, but fell down dead just as I was about to fire a second sbot. “ Who would believe tbat a success like tbis could excite in my mind transports of joy almost akin to madness ! Pain, fatigue, cruel want, uncertainty as to tbe future, and disgust at tbe past, all disappeared, all vanished, at tbe sight of my rare prize ; I could not look at it enough. I measured its enormous height, and gazed with astonishment from tbe instrument of destruction to tbe animal destroyed by it. I called and recalled my people, one by one ; and, though each of them might have been able to do as much, and we bad all slaughtered heavier and more dangerous animals, yet I was tbe first to kill one of tbis particular kind ; with it I was about to enrich natural history, and, putting an end to fiction, establish tbe truth.” Such are tbe pure, deep, and noble joys wbicb attend tbe travelling naturalist in tbe distant countries to wbicb be is urged by bis love of science and devotion to bis pursuit. Until tbe year 1827 no living Giraffe bad been brought to London or Paris ; but at tbis date tbe Pacha of Egypt having beard tbat tbe Arabs of tbe province of Sennaar, in Nubia, bad succeeded in rearing two young Giraffes on Camel’s milk, caused them to be brought to Cairo, one of wbicb be gave to tbe English, and tbe other to tbe French consul. Tbe specimen destined for France accomplished tbe journey from Sennaar to Cairo, partly on foot and partly on tbe Nile, in a boat specially prepared for its reception. It reached Marseilles in tbe month of January, where it passed tbe winter. Its journey to Paris began in May ; on tbe 5th of June it reached Lyons. On tbe 30th of June it made its entree into Paris, and went to St! Cloud, to be presented to tbe king before finally taking up its abode in tbe menagerie of tbe Museum. Tbe reception wbicb tbis strange visitor obtained at Paris may still be remembered. People never wearied in admiring its singular gait, its great height, its long neck, tbe peculiarity of its skin, and tbe brilliancy of its colours. An incalculable number of THE BUMINANT ORDER. 245' portraits and drawings of it were made, and the outbursts of curiosity and admiration for it were endless. This Giraffe from Sennaar passed a long and peaceful existence in the Jardin des Plantes, and died in 1845. Tribe of Hollow-horned Ruminants. — Ruminants with horns which are covered with an elastic sheath, something like aggluti- nated hair, may be divided into two groups. In the first, the bony nucleus of the frontal prolongations has neither pores nor cellules in texture ; whilst in the animals belonging to the second group, the nucleus is pierced with cellules which communicate with the frontal sinus. To the first group belong the Chamois, Gazelle, Saiga, Hyl-ghau, Gnu, and Bubale. To the second group belong the Common Goat, the Mouflon or Wild Sheep, the Sheep, and the Ox. Let us here consider the most remarkable species belonging to the first division. These all come under the natural and homo- geneous group formerly known by the name of Antelopes. It comprehends about a hundred species, which live, for the most part, in Africa. They are generally slender and lightly-made, fleet in running, of a gentle and timid disposition ; they are gregarious, and are particularly distinguishable by the different shapes of their horns. We shall cursorily glance at the most remarkable genera resulting from the division of the old general group of Ante- lopes. Chamois (Rupicapra) . — The chief characteristic of the Chamois genus is constituted by the smooth horns which are placed immediately above the orbits. These horns are almost upright, with a backward tendency, and curved like a hook at the end. The horns exist in both sexes, and are nearly the same size in each. The Chamois has but two teats ; its tail is short, and it has no beard. The European Chamois (R. Tragus) is about the size of a small Goat. It is covered with two sorts of hair — one woolly, very abundant, and of a brownish colour ; the other silky, spare, and brittle. Its coat is dark brown in winter and fawn-colour in summer ; its fine and intelligent head is of a pale yellow, with a brown stripe down the muzzle and round the eyes. Its horns are black, small, short, smooth, and not quite rounded. 216 MAMMALIA, This graceful Ruminant inhabits the Pyrenees and Alps, and also some of the highest points in Greece. But from constant persecution it has lately become so rare that few persons can boast of haying been successful in its pursuit. The Chamois lives in small herds, in the midst of steep rocks on the highest mountain summits. With marvellous agility it leaps over ravines, scales with nimble and sure feet the steepest accli- vities, bounds along the narrowest paths on the edge of the most perilous abysses, and jumping from rock to rock, will take its stand on the sharpest point, where there appears hardly room for its feet to rest ; and all this is accomplished with an accuracy of sight, a muscular energy, an elegance and precision of movement, and a self-possession which are without equal. From these facts, it can easily be understood that hunting this nimble and daring animal is an amusement full of danger. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 247 As the Chamois’ only weapon of self-defence is flight, its organs of sight, smell, and hearing, have attained a high degree of perfection. It is but rarely surprised, consequently can only be shot with a rifle of long range. In this arduous and often unproductive chase, many a mountaineer has fallen down precipices ; report even says that the Chamois, when pur- sued by a hunter, if it happens to be hemmed in or pressed too closely, to open a passage for escape will turn round and face the sportsman, endeavouring by the suddenness of its movements to take him unawares, and precipitate him over the crags. On the approach of winter the Chamois quits the northern side of the mountains, and betakes itself to the southern aspect ; but it never descends into the plain. Gazelle ( Gazella ). — The Gazelle genus comprehends animals of graceful shape, and rather smaller in size than the Chamois. They have tear-pits, and their Tails are short ; they have two teats ; their colour is fawn or dun on the back, which is separated from the white belly by a brown or blackish band. The horns, which are stronger in the male than in the female, are twice bent, in the shape of a lyre, and without sharp edges ; the nostrils are generally surrounded by hair. The eyes of this animal are so beautiful and so soft in expres- sion, its movements are so elegant and so light, that the Gazelle is used by the Arab poets as the type of all that is lovely and graceful. Gazelles proper are the species of this genus which are generally to be seen in our parks and menageries. Such, for instance, as the Dorcas Gazelle, which inhabits the large plains and Saharian region of Northern Africa. It is the same size as a Doe, but its shape is lighter and more graceful. Gazelles live in numerous herds, “which seem formed expressly,” as is cynically observed by Boitard, “ to furnish food for Lions, Panthers, Hyaenas, Jackals, Wolves, Eagles, and Vultures.” This prey is, alas ! composed of gentle, timid, and inoffensive beings, which have nothing but their rapid flight to oppose to their stealthy foes. Sometimes, however, these animals exhibit a kind of desperate courage. When their herd is surprised, they crowd one against the other, and, arranged in a circle, make a rush upon their assailants with their powerless horns. If their 248 MAMMALIA. destroyer is, for instance, a Lion, it has thus opportunity to make choice of its victim, when it darts upon the poor creature, and the terrified herd becomes scattered in flight. The Gazelle is ridden down by horsemen, or taken with the assistance of Dogs (Fig. 82). Tame Gazelles, with nooses fastened on their horns, are also let loose into the middle of a wild herd, when many get entangled in these knots, and are captured. If taken young, and reared in captivity, the Gazelle becomes domesticated and shows pleasure at being caressed ; seldom attempting to take flight in order to regain its liberty, although it doubtlessly repines when thus situated, for it languishes, and refuses to give its master a posterity of slaves. There are other species of Gazelle which live in Morocco, Senegal, Hubia, and the Cape of Good Hope ; but any special mention of them would be uninteresting. Saiga. — This genus is composed of several species of Ante- lope, the males of which possess spiral and annulated horns, with two or three curvatures, and without sharp edges. They have no muzzle, but possess tear-pits ; the hair on their instep is arranged in a brush-like form ; they have inguinal pores, two teats, and a short tuftless tail. Such, for instance, is the Saiga of Tartary ( Saiga tartarica) (Fig. 83), which has a stouter form than the Gazelle, and a coat of a light slate colour above and white underneath ; its horns are long, bending backwards, and very much annulated. Its carti- laginous muzzle is very long. These animals are very swift in their movements. It is said that they can leap to a height of thirteen feet, and clear with one bound a space of forty feet. They inhabit open plains, where any- thing approaching can be seen from afar, and associate in droves composed of from ten to sixty females and one mature male. When grazing or ruminating, members of the herd are placed as sentinels at about six to seven hundred feet distance, to watch over the common safety. At the slightest alarm, the whole take flight, with the old male at their head. Their principal habitat is the region of the Altai Mountains, but they are found as far as the frontiers of Europe. The members of this species collect together in flocks of several thousands for the purpose of migration, when the males form a guard, and defend the young ones from the attacks of Wolves Fig. 82.— Hunting the Gazelle ( Antilope dorcas, Pallas). 250 MAMMALIA. and Foxes. Their principal food consists of the wormwood and artemisia shrubs. Their sight is defective, but their sense of smell is so delicate that they discover an enemy at a great distance. We shall also mention a species of India, which is almost as large as a Fallow-deer. Its horns, which are as long as its Fig. 83. — The Tartary Saiga ( Antilope colus , H. Smith). head, are black (out of which the Indian Fakirs frequently make poniards), lyrated, and annulated to their extremities. Among the African Antelopes may be mentioned the Coudou ( Strepsiceros kudu). " (Fig. 84.) Nyl-ghau (. Portax Tragocamelus) or Bull-stag is a native of India (Fig. 85). It is a beautiful animal, about the same size as the male of the Bed- deer, and like it in general shape, though it looks heavier, on account of the greater size of its legs. Travellers have often compared it to an Ox, and, in fact, its name Fig. 84. — The Coudou ( Antilope strepsiceros, Pallas). 252 MAMMALIA, of blyl-ghau signifies in Hindostanee “ Blue Bull.” Its head is slender, and moderately long ; it has a blackish mane on its neck, also a tuft of long hard hair on its breast ; horns, which are half as long as its head, and are only found in the male ; they are conical, smooth, very far apart, and bent slightly for- wards. The colour of the male’s coat is slate-grey, whilst that of the female is pale brown. The tail is long, and terminated by a tuft. This handsome animal inhabits the interior of India and the Fig. 85. — The Nyl-ghau (Antilope picta , Pallas). mountains of Cashmere and Guzerat. It is hunted for its flesh, which is much esteemed. It is of a timid disposition, but does not allow the hunter to capture it without courageously defending its life. Hyl-ghaus. have been kept in menageries, where they were gentle, licked the hands of those who caressed them, and appeared quite reconciled to confinement. Connochetes. — The animals of this genus have a bovine appear- ance : a wide, bare muzzle ; a long and tufted tail ; horns which THE RUMINANT ORDER. 253 are found in both sexes, and are flat at their base, descending obliquely forwards, and suddenly turning upwards. The Gnu Antelope ( C . gnu) (Fig. 86), which inhabits Southern Africa, is about the size of an Ass. Added to a muscular and thick-set body, it has the muzzle of an Ox, the legs of a Stag, and the neck, shoulders, and rump of a small Horse. Its head is flattened, and its hair is short, and of a rushy-brown colour. It has on its neck a mane of white, grey, and black hair, and under Fig. 86. — The G-nu ( Antelope gnu, Gmelin). its chin hangs a thick brown beard. This remarkable animal lives, in numerous herds, in the mountains to the north of the Cape of Good Hope ; it was at one time numerous. They run in single file, following one of their number as a guide. Alcephalus. — We shall only mention under this genus the B ekker- el- W ash (Alcephalus bubalis), or Bubale of Northern Africa (Fig. 87), which has an elongated head, and horns some- what resembling the two prongs of a pitchfork. It lives in numerous herds, and evinces an evident liking for the society 254 MAMMALIA, of domestic cattle. It might perhaps be rendered useful by acclimatisation. Hollow-horned Ruminants, which have the bony nucleus of j i these horns partly filled up with cellules communicating with the frontal sinus, comprehend, as we have already said, the genera of Goats, Argalis, Sheep, and Oxen. Goats. — The chief characteristics of Goats are their horns, which turn upwards, are curvilineal, large, and divergent. A section of their horns is prismatic, or elliptic, and their front is often nodose ; their base rests on a protuberance of the frontal bones. Their forehead is also straight, and not protruding, as in Sheep, and the chin is furnished, especially in the male, with a long beard ; while their tail is short, and the body but sparsely furnished with fat. Their feet are, moreover, larger in proportion than those of Sheep. They only possess two teats. Several species of Wild Goats are recognised. We shall par- ticularly mention the Ibex of the Alps and the Caucasian Ibex. I THE RUMINANT ORDER. 255 The Common Ibex ( Capra ibex) (Fig. 88) is about tbe size of a Goat. Its winter coat is composed of long, rough hair, covering a soft, fine, and abundant wool, which it preserves during the summer. It is light brown above, and white underneath, with a black dorsal band, and a brown traverse line, which crosses the flanks. A rough black beard hangs from its chin ; its horns are blackish, with two longitudinal ridges, intersected by projecting and transversal ribs. These animals may be found on nearly all the lofty mountains Fig. 88.— The Common Ibex ( Capra ibex , Gray). of Europe, and keep to a still higher zone than the Chamois. They have animated and brilliant eyes, mobile ears, and a proud and independent demeanour. Making their residence on peaks bordering on the eternal snows, they feed on the scanty grass, the buds of the Alpine willow, dwarf birch, and rhododendrons. Their secureness of footing is such that they will jump with perfect confidence to a point of rock only of sufficient size to contain their four feet, leaping down to such a position from a height of from twenty to thirty feet, on which they will remain 256 MAMMALIA. balanced, or, poising themselves, spring to other peaks in their vicinity. Their sense of smell is so acnte that they often wind the hunter long before he can perceive them. If the sportsman pursues them to the edge of a precipice, where there is neither a crag or a ridge of rock within their reach, they have been known to spring into the abyss, and even to escape uninjured, when such a descent would have caused certain destruction to any other animal. The Ibex, when very hard pressed, will sometimes turn round and charge the hunter. The Paseng, Caucasian Ibex ( Hircus ccgagrus, Gray), is dis- tinguished from the Common Ibex by its horns, which are sharp in front. It inhabits the mountains of Asia, from the Caucasus to the Himalaya. We more particular^ pay attention to this species, as the race from which our Domestic Goats are descended. The Domestic Goat has been frequently called the poor man’s Cow, and not inappropriately, for those who cannot purchase a Cow may be able to buy a Goat ; and, although abstemious in the extreme, they yield an abundance of excellent milk. If from any cause a mother cannot suckle her child, no milk is so good to replace its natural sustenance as that of the Goat, which will even readily allow itself to be sucked, and generally becomes tenderly attached to its nursling. With these good qualities are, however, to be found several defects ; for the Goat is untractable, vagrant, and capricious. Two principal species of this Puminant are kept in France — the Common Goat and the Syrian Goat. The Common Goat ( Capra hircus) (Fig. 89) is the most widely spread and the most hardy of all the species. Its colour varies, and is either all white, black and white, or grey and brown of different shades, with white spots. There is a sub-variety of this species without horns. When properly attended to, the Goat gives, in exchange for the little food it eats, two kids a year, an abundant supply of milk, and a plentiful and valuable growth of hair, which can be shorn once a year. The Syrian Goat, or Goat with pendulous ears, is more fre- quently without horns than the former species. It thrives best in climates of a moderate temperature, as it is less hardy and more sensitive to cold than the Common Goat. There are two varieties of Goat in the East — that of Thibet or Cashmere, and that of Angora. THE RUMINANT ORDER, '’257 The Thibetian Groat (Fig. 90) is found in great numbers in tbe magnificent valley of Cashmere and in Thibet, and is, without doubt, the most valuable of all the Caprine species. The wool which grows under its scanty hair is used in making those valuable fabrics and marvellous tissues of India known as Cashmere shawls, Pig. 89. — The Common Goat ( Capra hircus, Linn.). which are esteemed throughout the world for their delicacy, soft- ness, and smoothness. The coat of the Thibet Goat is removed every year. This process is accomplished with a comb of double teeth, made expressly for the purpose. The acclimatisation of this species in Europe did not present any great difficulty : but the fine wool produced in our climate was unable to stand in competition with the exotic produce, and the undertaking was finally abandoned from being unprofitable. s . 258 MAMMALIA, Fig. 91.— Angora Goats. plished, and the animals born in the menagerie of the Jardin des The Angora Goat (Fig. 91) is a native of the extreme East. Fig. 90. — Thibetian Goat. Hearing this species in France has been successfully accom- THE RUMINANT ORDER. 259 Plantes at Paris thrive as well as they would in their native land. Of all foreign species the Angora Goat is the one which might be most advantageously propagated in France, where it appears certain to become a source of wealth to the mountainous districts. It gives as much milk as the European Goat, and its fleece is composed of long and fine wool, which preserves all its lustre after it is dyed. This wool resembles,, and is often mis- taken for silk ; for it possesses the brilliancy of the latter, and takes, in the hands of the dyer, the same shades. It is superior to the best wools for the fabrication of woollen velvet; beautiful light fabrics are also made from it, which are called in the trade Zephyr cloths. Angora Goats are generally of small size, and their white coat is long and twisted. There are other species of Goats, among which may be men- tioned the Nubian Goat ( C . nubiania ), a specimen of which is kept in the Jardin des Plantes. Caprovis Genus. — This family, like the Ibex, are mountain animals, and are found nearly all over the globe, for they exist not only in the Old World, but also in North America. The Argali, which is found in Asia, has two varieties — Ovis ammonides (Fig. 92) and Ovis ammon. They are as large as a Deer ; their horns bear some degree of resemblance to those of our rams. The Mouflon (C. musimon ) of Corsica and Sardinia is about the size of an ordinary Sheep, but is more stoutly made. The fleece is woolly, and of a greyish colour, and is hidden under its long and silky hair. Its horns are large, triangular at the base, and flattened towards their point, and in the female are entirely wanting. These animals live in droves. The Kebsch (Fig. 93) is an African species, remarkable for the mane which covers its neck, and for the long hair which falls down over its legs, something in the form of cuffs. The Big Horn (C. canadensis) is the representative of this family in North America. Dr. Gray considers this the same as the Ammon of Siberia. The Sheep Genus. — According to M. Milne-Edwards, the almost innumerable varieties of Sheep which are reared by Man in a s 2 206 MAMMALIA. state of domesticity appear to have descended from the Argali. M. Paul Gervais, however, is of opinion that the Sheep is a domestic animal which has never known a wild state. The principal characteristics of Sheep consist in the greater length of their tails, which usually hang down as low as their feet, and, also, in the bony nature of their horns, which are farther apart at the base, and shaped more spirally than those of the Argali. Further, many breeds of Sheep, in both sexes, are entirely desti- tute of horns. One thing is certain, that domestic Sheep have a very different appearance from their supposed progenitors. The former are pos- sessed neither of the slender or graceful shape nor the nimbleness of pace which is peculiar to the wild breed. The Domestic Sheep is heavy in its tread, and. slow in its motions. In them the long and silky bair of the Argali, or Wild Sheep, has almost entirely disappeared; whilst their wool, becoming enormously developed, constitutes a thick fleece. The amount of intelligence they THE KUMINANT OBDEB. 261 possess is very limited, and their constitution is weak ; indeed, they would soon entirely disappear, were it not that man protects them with assiduous and continual care. In our climate the ewe does not in general produce more than once in a year ; but in warmer countries they often bear twice in that period. The length of gestation is five months, and the ewes preserve their milk for seven or eight months after the birth of their young, although the lambs are not allowed to Fig. 93.— Kebsch {Caprovis ammotragus, Gray). suck for over two or three months. At the age of one year Sheep are able to reproduce, and they continue fruitful to the age of ten or twelve years. Very considerable differences exist in the various varieties of Sheep. The Big-tailed Sheep is a breed which is remarkable for the shape o| its tail ; in them this appendage is expanded to so grea,t an extent with fat, that it often assumes the form of an immense excrescence. This race exists in the temperate parts of 262 MAMMALIA. Asia, in the South of Russia, in Tipper Egypt, and at the Cape of Good Hope. Travellers have stated that in parts of Eastern Africa some of these Sheep are harnessed to a kind of small truck, solely for the purpose of supporting the weight of their tails. There is another race, which is quite as remarkable, known under the name of the Big-headed Sheep. They have no horns, and their necks are supplied with the rudiments of a dew-lap, which recalls to mind that of Oxen. The Wallachian Sheep is distinguished by its horns pointing ' straight upwards, and twisting spirally, like those of Antelopes. The Iceland Sheep is known to have as many as three, four, and even eight horns. In speaking of the breeding of this valuable animal, we shall presently refer to other varieties which exist in our own country or among neighbouring nations. Sheep are, in fact, one of the principal sources of agricultural wealth, and furnish, both to commerce and manufacture, products of no inconsiderable importance. Flocks of Sheep, from the dung which they leave .behind them, are wonderful improvers of the soil. The folding of these animals in a field intended for the culti- vation of corn causes beneficial effects which are felt for three consecutive years. Thus their utility in rural economy has long been known* Their wool, for a very considerable period, was considered their most valuable production ; but now they supply so vast a quantity of wholesome, agreeable, and very nourishing food, that it is doubtful in which way they most benefit the human family. The fat of Sheep, which forms tallow, is like- wise one of their most important products ; in some breeds it forms a layer from seven to eight inches thick along the j ribs and around the loins. Their skin, deprived of the wool, is also applied to numerous purposes. Of this integument is made I most of the thin leathers which are used in the manufacture of shoes and gloves. When prepared by other processes it takes in commerce the names of chamois , parchment, vellum, &c. Lastly, milk and cheese are other useful products which are furnished to us by these useful creatures. Ewe’s milk, which is remarkable for its richness, is used in many countries as an article of food, but it is more generally applied to the manufacture of cheese. In no part of France do the flocks receive such judicious management, with a view to THE EUMINANT ORDER. 263 the production of milk, as in the department of Aveyron, and chiefly in the district of which the village of Roquefort is the centre. In its environs more than two hundred thousand milking ewes are kept. The basis of these cheeses is the curdled milk, in which is mixed and kneaded a small quantity of mouldy bread reduced to powder. These cheeses undergo various operations, upon which we shall not now dwell, which, however, give them their flavour and special qualities. The most valuable commodities which are produced by Sheep, both in a manufacturing and agricultural point of view, may be summed up as wool and meat. In order to supply these two products in perfection, it is necessary that the animal should present a certain type of conformation. We shall carefully examine the various varieties of Sheep ; but before entering upon this subject we will say a few words as to the origin, structure, and qualities of their wool, and the harvest of the fleece. The Sheep’s skin produces, in a wild state, two capillary substances : one, stiff and straight, which is called hair , and is the most abundant ; the other, waving or curled, which is called wool , and is the most scanty. In a domesticated state, how- ever, these proportions are reversed ; it is the wool which is the most plentiful and constitutes the fleece. Under all the efforts of culture the stiff hair tends more and more to decrease. The fleece is composed of a collection of locks or slivers , and the locks of a collection of the staple , or hairy fibres. The staple is composed of tubes fitted together, which are only visible in the miscroscope ; their diameter is variable, for which reason it is divided into extra fine , fine , middling, common , and coarse. Such staple as is equal throughout in diameter, if straight, is much valued; when it is flexuous, the wool is called wavy ; and when the flexions are very close together, it is pronounced curly . This last characteristic appears to belong more particularly to the Merino breed. The desiderata sought for in wool are flexibility, mellowness, and softness ; these properties enable the staple to preserve the quali- ties which are communicated to it, for then the wool will work or felt much more easily, and imparts to the woven fabric the softness and mellowness to the touch which is so much valued. .—A Flock of Sheep. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 265. Elasticity is also most desirable, for without it wool could not be used in the manufacture of milled cloths. Most of the properties we have just pointed out are due to the greasy matter which penetrates more or less the animal’s coat. This lubricating substance is of a very complex nature, its com- position varying in different breeds. The yolk, for so it is called, is more or less fluid and oily, and is secreted by small glands peculiar to the skin of this race. When the yolk abounds, it communicates to the wool both softness and pliability ; if it is thick and strongly coloured, it imparts to the wool a rough and coarse feel, which necessitates a special process of cleansing or scouring. Wool is naturally either white, brown, or black. Those of the two last-named colours are less appreciated than the first. The best wool is found on the sides of the animal’s body, from the shoulders to the croup, and underneath as far as the line of the lowest part of the belly. On the lower part of the belly, where the fleece is less thick (in fact, wanting altogether in some varieties), the locks of wool are felted together, and short, because they are often crushed when the animal lies down. On the back, the croup, and the top of the thighs, the regularity and uniformity of the locks both diminish, nor does it possess either the mellowness or the pliability of that on the sides. The wool both on the upper and lower parts of the neck is frequently found weak and pendent ; that on the head and front of the chest is generally rougher and harsher, as well as being irregular in length and very wavy. The wool on the withers is almost always coarse ; that on the ends of the limbs frequently valueless. Let us now turn to the various breeds of Sheep. M. Sanson, in his work on Zootechnie , classes the ovine race in two categories: — The long-woolled breed, that is, with long- stapled wool, straight, or merely waved ; and the short-woolled breed, that is, those with more closely-curled wool. In the long-woolled breed the fleece is comparatively of small value in a manufacturing point of view, these varieties being specially devoted to the production of food. We will mention the principal breeds of this kind. 266 MAMMALIA. The Leicesters (Fig. 95) afford a meat which is deficient in firmness and is often too fat and devoid of flavour. Fig. 95. — Leicester Eace. The Cotswold breed (Fig. 96) is a large and coarse- woolled ; f i * Fig. 96.— Cotswold Breed (Ewe). variety, and is at the present time plentiful and popular in the, British Isles ; it resembles the Leicesters. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 267 The Welsh breed (Fig. 97) and the Scotch, both fed and reared principally on elevated ground, furnish mutton highly appreciated. The Flemish breed affords a large supply of tallow, but the carcass possesses too much bone, and is rather wanting in flavour. Fig. 97.— Welsh Breed (Earn). The Breton breed, which inhabits the coasts of Morbihan and Finisterre, is valuable on account of the justly-esteemed quality of its flesh. This small variety wanders at will over the Landes. Fig. 98.— Touareg Breed (Earn). The Touareg breed (Fig. 98), which is very widely dis- tributed in Algeria, seek their food over enormous tracts of 268 MAMMALIA, ground, and pass from the desert into the Tell, and from the Tell into the desert, according to the season. Their remarkable pro- lificness constitutes their principal value. Among the short- woolled breed we must, in the first place, mention the South-Down variety (Fig. 99), which chiefly inhabits the downs situated in the county of Sussex. This breed of Sheep is the most remarkable found in Great Britain, from where it has been extensively introduced into France, its mutton being most deservedly esteemed in both countries. The Merino breed derives its name from the habits of its life Fig. 99. — South-Down Sheep. ( merino , in Spanish, signifying “wandering ”). It was brought into the latter country by the Moors, and thence introduced into France, on account of the fineness and beauty of its wool. The Spanish Merinos live during the winter in the rich valleys and fertile plains in the mild climate of Estremadura, Andalusia, and New Castile. They pass the summer on the high mountains in the ancient kingdom of Leon, Old Castile, Navarre, and Aragon — regions which are the most favoured in all Spain for the freshness of their temperature. Here grows a sweet herbage, much sought after by these Sheep, and which does not dry up from the heat of the sun. The Merinos begin their migrations Fig. 100.— Merino Sheep of Rambouillet. 270 MAMMALIA. about tbe beginning of tbe month of April, and they are shorn during their journey. The establishments devoted to this opera- tion are so well managed that a flock consisting of one thousand head of sheep can be disburdened of their valuable covering in oue day. They arrive at their destination at the end of the month of May or the beginning of June, and remain there till September, when they repair again to their winter quarters. The Merino sheep is, so to speak, a cosmopolitan animal, and may be met with in the most widely-divided latitudes, for it has been introduced into Germany, France, the English colonies at the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, Canada, and the United States of America. The definitive introduction of this breed into France dates from the year 1766, when Daubenton brought from Spain a flock which Fig. 101. — Merino Breed of Mauohamp (Ram). he placed in his domain at Montbard, between Chatillon-sur- Seine and Semur (Cote-d’Or). This undoubtedly was the original stock of all the Merinos at present to be found in Burgundy. In 1786 Louis XYI. founded the celebrated Sheep establishment at Bambouillet, from where the breed of Merinos has been spread most extensively. Having been subjected to various conditions, both of food and climate, this breed has been broken up into varieties, which have caused them to be distinguished under the names of Merinos of Bambouillet (Fig. 100), of Beauce, of Brie, of Soissonnais, of Champagne, of Burgundy, and of Mauchamp (Fig. 101), specially deserving of notice for their silky wool. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 271 The merino wool varies in the degrees of fineness ; but the last- mentioned race produces the best, for it combines in the highest degree both softness, strength, and elasticity. The fleece covers the whole skin of the animal, down even to its toes, and the tip of the nose is the only part left free. On the other hand, the Merino is but indifferent mutton, which is not only over- burdened with bone, but also has a very decided flavour of the wool-grease or yolk. The breeds of Berry and Sologne produce a meat which is valued by the butcher, but their fleece is of a very common quality. The Poitou breed furnishes a large quantity of fat sheep to the Fig. 102.— Black Breed of the Landes (Ram). markets of Sceaux and Poissy, but their mutton is far from deserving to be considered of prime quality. The Pyrenean breed is valuable for the table ; for it is fine, and of an agreeable flavour. A breed from the Landes (Fig. 102) has a black fleece, and its meat is esteemed. The breed of Larzac (Fig. 103) spends the winter upon the plateau of the mountain of Larzac (Aveyron), and the fine weather in the plains. This breed is slender in shape and clad with a scanty fleece. They furnish excellent milk, which is used extensively in the manufacture of cheese. Sheep- shearing takes place every year. Sometimes the wool is taken to market in the rough ; at other times it is not clipped until the animal has undergone a thorough cleansing. 272 MAMMALIA. Before beginning tbe operation, wliicb takes place during tbe months of May and June, the Sheep are plunged into the water and their wool is rubbed with the hand, to cleanse it from the grease ; it is then cut off with shears. All the portions of the fleece which are cut off must hold together without gap or rent. Before it is offered for sale it is doubled and rolled up and firmly bound. In France the trade in wool is very important. It is estimated that the flocks there produce about two hundred million pounds Fig. 103.— Breed of Larzae. weight of wool in the rough, equivalent to seventy-seven million j pounds weight of cleansed wool. Scarcely any wool at all is exported ; indeed, French manufacturers buy annually about | seventy to eighty million pounds weight of foreign growth. The French fabric, called Merino, has a well-merited renown. In no other country are they able to produce such brilliancy and softness. In fact, French manufacturers have rendered them- selves worthy of their produce. Ox Genus. — This genus is easily distinguished from the other groups of the hollow-horned Ruminants. It is composed of large and heavy animals, with concave horns, turned outwards, in the shape of a crescent. The head is terminated by a wide muzzle, the legs are strong and robust ; the skin of the neck is loose and hanging, forming a large fold, called the dew-lap. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 273 There are eight species in the Ox genus, viz., the American Bison, the Musk Ox, the Cape Buffalo, the European Bison or Auroch, the Yak, the Jungle Ox, the Buffalo, and the Com- mon Ox. The Bison ( Bison americanus ), Fig. 104, is of a thick-set shape, its croup and head are low and its withers very high ; its head is short and large ; its horns are small, lateral, far apart, black, and rounded. Its head, neck, and shoulders are covered with Fig. 104. — The American Bison. ( Taurus mexicanus, Hernandez.) thick, curly, dark brown wool, which becomes very long in winter. The rest of its body is, on the contrary, covered with a short dark brown coat. Its tail is short, and terminated by a tuft of long hair. f This immense animal inhabits all parts of North America, especially the plateaux on the eastern slopes of the Bocky Moun- tains. In the spring, herds of thousands of Bisons, crowded closely together, make their way up from the south to the north of these vast steppes ; in the autumn they migrate again to the south. When the summer comes, these wild troops break up, and the Bisons separate into couples or small herds, guided by two or three old males. Bisons are not ferocious in their nature ; they seldom attack Man, but will defend themselves when wounded ; they then become formidable adversaries, for their enormous heads, well T 274 furnished with, horns, and their fore-feet, are terrible weapons. In their migrations, their numbers are so enormous, that as they advance everything that comes in their way is devastated. The Musk Ox ( Ovibos moschatus), Fig. 105, is much smaller than the Common Ox, and has somewhat the appearance of an enormous sheep. Its forehead is arched ; its mouth small ; its muzzle com- pletely covered with hair ; and its horns, which are very large, are closely united at the base, and bending downwards over the sides of its head, suddenly turn backwards and upwards at the tips. Its long and abundant coat is of a dark brown colour. • It exhales a strong odour of musk, which even impregnates the flesh. This animal, which is a combination of the Ox, Sheep, and Goat, inhabits North America below the polar circle, and lives in families of from ten to twenty individuals, among which there are seldom more than two or three males. In the month of August the latter become so jealous that they fight even to the very death. Notwithstanding its apparent heaviness, the Musk Ox climbs over rocks almost as nimbly as a Goat, and its speed across the rocky, rough, barren grounds, its principal habitat, for an animal so clumsy, is truly astonishing. The European Buffalo, or Auroch (Bison europceus), is, next to the Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Giraffe, the largest of terrestrial Mammals. It is nearly six feet high, measured at its withers. Its horns are large, round and lateral, and its tail is long; the front of the body, as far as the shoulders, is covered with coarse, harsh, brown hair; the underneath part of its throat, down to its breast, is furnished with a long pendulous mane, and the rest of its body is covered with short black hair. This animal is the Eras of the ancients. It formerly lived in all the marshy forests of temperate Europe, even in Great Britain. In the time of Caesar it was still to he found in Germany, hut, from the increase of Man and his conquests, it has become more and more rare. At the present time it is only to he found in two provinces of Russia — the forest of Bialowieza, in the govern- ment of Grodno, and the province of Awhasie, a dependency of the Caucasian region. Yery severe orders have been issued by the Emperor of Russia to prevent the destruction of these animals, and not one can he killed without his permission. Fig» 106s-“The Musk Ox {Bos moschatus 5 Eichafdson)i 276 MAMMALIA. The Cape Buffalo ( Bubalus coffer) is distinguished, by its large horns, from all the other species peculiar to the Old World, the flattened bases of which coyer the top of its head like a helmet, only leaving a triangular space between them. The horns of this African Buminant are black, while its coat is brown. It lives in numerous herds in the thickest forests of Southern Africa, from the northern limits of Cape Colony as far as Guinea, When in the open country it is shy and cautious ; but is formidable and aggressive when hunted in the woods which form its principal retreat. Buffalo hunting is one of the occupations of the natives of the south of Africa ; and it is not unaccompanied by danger, for it often happens that the re- spective characters are inverted, and it is the Buffalo which chases the hunters (Fig. 106). The Yak, or Horse-tailed Buffalo {Bos grunniens, Linn.), has a large tuft of woolly hair on its head, and a sort of mane on its neck; the underneath part of its body, particularly around the legs, is covered with very bushy, long, pendent hair; its tail, which is entirely covered with hair, resembles that of a horse ; while its voice is a low and monotonous sound, which becomes 9 harsh and discordant when the animal is excited. It is found undomesticated on the confines of Chinese Tartary. It is then wild, irascible, and dangerous ; but when captured and broken in, it proves a useful servant to the inhabitants of Thibet and the north of China, who utilise it as we do our cattle. Its milk is excellent ; and its strength in carrying loads and dragging ploughs and conveyances extraordinary. But it is with ( difficulty they are tamed, for their disposition is always restless i and wilful, and subject to fits of bad temper. Its flesh is highly | esteemed, and coarse fabrics are made from its hair. The tail of this Buminant has long been valued in the East. Attached to the end of a lance, with the Mussulmen it is the insignia of the dignity of Pacha ; and, the higher this dignity, the greater is the number of tails which the possessor of rank has a right to have carried before him. The Chinese also adorn themselves with the tail of the Yak, dyed red, by placing it in their caps. It is moreover employed as a switch for driving away flies. Yaks have been successfully introduced into Europe, and they 278 MAMMALIA. liave bred in France. The frequenters of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, must he perfectly acquainted with it. For the sake of their long silky hair, hopes are entertained of acclimatising them. The Jungle Ox, or Jungly- Gau (Bos sylhetanus, F. Cuvier), very strongly resembles the Common Ox ; but its horns are flattened from front to back, and tend outwards and upwards. Its colour is generally blackish, with four white legs. These Oxen are reared in a domestic state in the mountainous countries of the north-east of India. The Common Buffalo ( Bos bubalus , Briss.) appears to be a native of the warm and damp parts of India and the neigh- bouring isles, from whence it has spread into Persia, Arabia, the south of Africa, Greece, and Italy. It is nearly the same size as an Ox. Its bulging forehead, which is longer than it is wide, bears two black horns, turned outwards, and marked in front by a longitudinal and prominent ridge. Its coat is coarse and scant, except on its throat and cheeks, and it has a very small dew-lap. It lives in numerous herds in marshy and low plains, where it delights in wallowing. It is of a wild and ixntractable disposition, particularly towards strangers ; and, in order to make use even of those which are the tamest, the more perfectly to control them, a ring of iron is passed through their nostrils. Their flesh is indifferent, but their milk is good. In the cultivation of rice — that cereal particularly requiring moist land - — their services are most valuable, for their power of draught, even when immersed to the knees in mud, far exceeds all other animals in a similar situation. In the Campagna of Pome the Buffalo is employed in agricultural labour, as may be seen in the cele- brated picture of “ The Reapers,” by Leopold Robert. In the Crimea they are also utilised ; those who served with the 1 allied army before Sebastopol will remember them. The introduction of the Buffalo into Greece and Italy only dates from the Middle Ages. Their skin is excellent for making armour to guard against cutting weapons. The Arna, or Wild Buffalo, must be considered as a variety of this species. Its horns are very large, about five feet long, wrinkled on their concave side, and flat in front. It is princi- pally found in Hindostan. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 279 We now come to the Ox proper. The male and female of this species are respectively the Bull and Cow. The Ox in this case, as understood by us, is a Bull deprived of the attributes of his sex in order to render him more docile, submissive, and easily fattened. The Bull is, therefore, exclusively an animal for reproduction. Its easily offended, wild, and even violent disposition prevents its being used like the Ox in agricultural labour ; and, on the other hand, its dry and sinewy flesh is inferior as food. Therefore only a sufficient number of Bulls are kept to maintain the species in the requisite number. When very young, most Bulls undergo the operation which transforms them into Oxen, and thus acquire a fitness to perform agricultural labour, and be improved as food for Man. The young males are called Steers, and the females Heifers. There is, at the mouth of the Rhone, stretching from the town of Arles to the Mediterranean, a vast extent of marshy land, intersected by woods. This tract has been formed by successive deposits of the river, and is called the Camargue. Large herds of cattle live in an almost wild state in these humid plains and solitary woods. The Bulls of the Camargue are all black, of a moderate size, with long tapering horns. Their wild nature, agility, and exceptional strength render them very dangerous. They are employed in the Bull-fights, or “courses,” of which the Provencals and inhabitants of Bas-Languedoc are so passion- ately fond. The herds of the Camargue are guarded by herdsmen called Gardians. These are armed with a trident, and mounted on small, spirited Horses (Camargue Horses), which, like the Oxen, graze at liberty in this delta. When about to be killed, the cattle are penned up, allowed a little rest, and better food, to improve their flesh. In South America, especially in the vast pampas of the basin of La Plata, immense herds of Wild Cattle are to be found, descended from animals introduced into those countries at the time of their appropriation by Europeans. At one time innumerable quantities of these were killed only for their hides, which were sent to all the markets of the world in the untanned state ; but at the pre- sent date the Buenos- Ayrians have learnt to manage the meat so as to forward it dry or pressed to a great distance. The flesh of 280 MAMMALIA. these cattle is now employed to make Liebig’s “ Extract of Meat,” from which soup can be obtained at a minute’s notice. This new preparation is the dry and concentrated extract made from the liquor which remains after boiling down the beef. Europe, at the present time, consumes no inconsiderable quantity of this extr actum carnis, the invention of a Berlin chemist. In spite of the immense slaughter, there appears to be no dimi- nution in the number of Wild Cattle, which wander far and wide in these vast regions of America, because the destruction which takes place is duly compensated for by their annual reproduction. Much ink has been used and much paper has been spoiled in the endeavour to solve the question as to the origin of the Ox ; but, even now, we are no further advanced than at the outset of the discussion, and are, after all, compelled to proceed on con- jecture. Is the Domestic Ox a descendant of any one of the wild species of the genus, such as the Buffalo ? This opinion, which, however, was that adopted by Buffon, is now abandoned. Are we to seek in Europe the primitive type of the species, or in Asia, the cradle of civilization ? Or is it not the case that the bovine races of the East and West have each respectively their own special origin P and would it not border on impudence to assert that the latter are derived from the former, since such an assertion is based on nothing but very vague data, drawn from the fables of antiquity, frequently so erroneous ? However we may answer these questions, the most ancient documents of historic ages describe the Ox, the Horse, the Dog, and the Sheep, as associated with Man. The former animal was carried over to America shortly after the discovery of that continent, and is now spread over the entire earth, forming one of the most important elements of its wealth. How, indeed, could any one describe the state to which agriculture would be reduced if suddenly deprived of the Ox ? This humble and patient animal forms the most useful assistant of the small farmer, and also constitutes the main performer of the most important agricultural operations. It helps to till the ground ; it drags immense and heavily laden waggons ; it takes a part in all the labours of the farm ; and, after fifteen or sixteen years of a well-spent life, it yields up for the benefit of Man its flesh, bones, fat, skin, horns, hoofs, and blood — all of them products which I1 Fig. 107.— Draught Oxen, 282 MAMMALIA. supply with material a host of useful manufactures. As a return for so many services so liberally rendered, what is it that it asks in return ? Nothing but a due amount of care and cleanliness, a well- ventilated shed, and a sufficiency of wholesome food, the manure arising from the latter paying nearly all its expense. The Ox is neither so dull nor so stupid as is popularly believed ; but, on the contrary, is endowed with a degree of intelligence which, in certain countries, Man has developed and turned to his profit ; for some of the tribes of South Africa entrust to Oxen the care of their flocks, duties which the sagacious Buminants fulfil with a zeal and intelligence worthy of all praise. Pru- dence and a quick perception of danger are also qualities possessed by the Ox. If, either by his own fault or that of his guide, he finds himself in a dangerous place, he develops resources for extricating himself quite surprising. When we are considering the advantages which society derives from them, domestic cattle may be looked at in four different aspects : as beasts of burthen, that is, producers of mechanical force applicable to the cultivation of the soil ; as supplying milk ; as furnishing meat ; and, lastly, as makers of manure or fer- tilizing matter. Allowing all this, the question arises, is it possible to manage the breeding and rearing of the Ox so as to ensure the maximum result of all these four requirements P All the agriculturists who have had any experience in breeding cattle give a negative reply to this question. Qualities so different in their nature as muscular vigour, abundance of milk, fitness for fattening, and richness of fertilizing residuum, cannot, they say, be the attribute of one animal or one breed ; in fact, they exclude one another, and one quality can only be encouraged at the expense of the others. A good breed for work can hardly at the same time be a good breed for the butcher. If, therefore, any one quality is to be specially developed, the others must, to some extent, be sacrificed. By this plan perfection may, at all events, be arrived at in one point, whilst by a different course of procedure nothing but mediocrity can be attained. This is the principle which ought to guide the agriculturist in the choice and breeding of his cattle. Beef, after all, is the most useful product which the Ox affords. To the improvement of it must therefore tend all our efforts. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 283 The problem simply consists in producing, as quickly and economically as possible, an animal excelling to the highest degree both in the quantity and quality of its meat. Care, therefore, must be taken particularly to develop those parts which furnish the joints which are most esteemed, such as the thighs and rump. According to these ideas, the type of the Ox best fitted for the butcher is that in which flesh surpasses bone in proportion, and in which the hinder parts are more fully developed, even at the expense of the neck and shoulders ; for the latter joints furnish an inferior article of food, so that their reduction, if compensated for by an increase of the more valuable portions, must be a great desideratum. What, therefore, are the points by which we can discern when an Ox approaches the butcher’s ideal P The answer is, great width combined with depth and length. “The deeper,” says M. Sanson, “the animal is in the thorax, in proportion to its size, — the closer it is to the ground, in vulgar terms ; added to this, the longer it is in body and rump ; and the thicker it is, or, as is commonly said, ‘ the better it is made up,’ the greater amount of clear meat it gives in comparison with its absolute or living weight, and the better it approaches to the desired type.”* There are certain accessory characteristics which must have their due importance as likewise forming a prominent feature in the type of the Ox which is intended for the butcher. It must have slenderly made bones, a fine head, skin supple and not too thick, moderate dew-lap, thin and downy hair, calm visage, quiet and mild look. It may be regarded as a certainty, that the Ox which combines these and the former attributes possesses a special fitness for becoming good beef. Next to meat, milk is the most valuable product which this race furnishes us — a source of wealth to the producers, for it is an article of universal consumption. Thus it may be easily understood how important it is for the buyer to be able to dis- tinguish, a priori, in the market, from certain outward signs, what are the milking qualities of a Cow, and to be able to arrive at a correct conclusion, even in a Heifer, whether she will be a good or bad milker. In spite, therefore, of certain preconceived * Application de la Zootechnie. 284 i, opinions, tlie discovery of Francois Guenon, a farmer of Gironde, should be welcomed with as much pleasure as surprise : it asserted the possibility of determining at once, from a mere examination of the Cow, both the quantity and quality of the milk it would furnish, as well as the period of its lactation. Does not this statement rather savour of exaggeration ? Do the data on which it is based present any degree of scientific value ? A commission, nominated by the ^National Government of 1848, was charged to solve these questions. This Cow-dealer and farmer — for such was Guenon’s business — was in a position to observe practically a great number and variety of cattle. He remarked that in Cows the hairs on the hinder face of the udders are turned upwards, and added to this, these hairs extend more or less over the region of the perinseum, so as to form a figure, which he describes under the name of an escutcheon. By a multiplicity of observations, he became assured that a Cow’s power of giving milk varied in proportion to the size of this escutcheon, and he divided Cows into orders and classes accordingly. He certainly somewhat exaggerated the merits of his plan, and his indicia , in some points, were clearly contradicted. This the commission did not fail to see. Still, however, they had to confess that the basis of his hypothesis was correct, and that the longer and wider the so-called escutcheon of the animal is, the greater are its milking qualities. Hence results a proba- bility of knowing approximately, by the inspection of the udder, the quantity of milk that may be expected from a Cow.* By taking notice of certain outward indications, such as those furnished by the bulk, size, and consistence of the udder, the development of the lacteous veins, &c., it is very seldom that a careful or experienced observer can be in fault. As far as regards the richness of milk, Guenon considers that it finds its maximum in those Cows which have the skin of their udders of a yellowish hue, freckled with black or reddish spots, furnished with fine and scanty hair, and covered with a greasy substance, which becomes detached when it is scratched on the surface. This escutcheon exists in males also, but is much less extensive * See Guenon’s work, Choix de Vaches laitieres, published at Paris in 1847, and accompanied with plates exemplifying his system. Fig. 108. — Cows and Calf. 286 MAMMALIA. and varied in shape. In them it ought to be taken into con- sideration as an indication of their fitness to procreate stock likely to be good milkers. In Calves this characteristic is but indifferently developed, both on account of its smallness and also the bushy hair which often hides the hind-quarters, nevertheless, with a little attention it maybe discovered. It is more clearly shown on the Cow- Calves than on the Bull-Calves, but it is only after the third or fourth year that it attains its precise size and shape. Cows do not give the same quantity of milk 1 at all periods of their life. They furnish the largest amount when they have suckled several Calves. There are both good and bad milkers in every race ; the pro- portion, however, of each presents a certain constant character, , by which some breeds may be recognised as possessing a decided milking superiority. Climate and nature of pasturage have also great influence on the lacteous qualities of different races. It may be stated, in a general way, that in France the best milking Cows are those which inhabit mild and damp districts, such as northern and western coasts. The most noted producers of this article of universal consumption are those of Holland, Flanders, Normandy, and Brittany, and some individuals belonging to these breeds will give as much as from five to six gallons of milk a day. Among foreign breeds may be mentioned those of the Channel Islands, known by the names of the Alderney and J ersey ; those of Ayrshire, in Scotland ; the Schwitz, or Swiss breed ; and the Jura breed, which belongs as much to France as Switzerland, comprehending as it does all the cattle distributed on both sides of the chain of mountains separating the countries. The | latter breed is that which supplies the cheese-making companies established in the departments of Doubs, J ura, and Ain. W e here represent two French breeds, the Norman and the Breton (Figs. 109 and 110). We must now pass on to those breeds which are held in the highest reputation for their capacity for labour as well as pro- ducing beef ; and it is to be remarked that they are generally bred with both ends in view. In the possession of working Oxen, France has an unquestion- able superiority; to such extent, indeed, that the breeds belonging THE EUMINANT ORDER. 287 to that country are almost the only ones we shall mention under this head. The principal of these come from Vendee, Auvergne, La Garonne (Fig. Ill), Gascony, Bearn (Fig. 112), Fig. 109. — Norman Bull. Bazadois (Fig. 113), La Camargue, those of Maine and Morvan, which unfortunately are disappearing, and, lastly, those of Algeria. England, on the other hand, surpasses all other nations in Fig. 110.— Breton Bull. Oxen fit for the butcher ; and this is just as it should be, for every true Englishman is nationally a worshipper of roast-beef. The most celebrated British stock is the Durham, or Short-horned breed, which has been introduced on the Continent, and, by mixing ' Fig. 111.— Bull of La Garonne. Fig. 112.— Cow of Berne. Fig. 113.— Cow of Bazadois. THE EUMINANT OEDEE. 289. with other breeds, has produced the most magnificent results. The Durham breed is the most valuable of all the bovine species ; most of the individuals belonging to it are adults at the age of three years, while the Ox in the natural conditions of its develop- ment is not completely formed until the age of six years. The next to be mentioned are the breeds of Hereford, Devon, Dishley, Galloway (in Scotland), or the hornless breed, and that of the West Highlands of Scotland; then, on the Continent, the Hungarian breed (Fig. 114), remarkable for its elongated horns ; and the Charolaise breed (Fig. 115), which was formerly confined Fig. 114.— Hungarian Oxen. to the environs of Charolles (Saone-et-Loire), but has gradually extended over the entire basin of the Loire, and everywhere tending to supersede the breeds of Maine and Morvan. Several of these breeds are represented in the accompanying engravings. Tribe of Ruminants which shed their Horns. — The distinctive characteristic of the animals of this group consists in the texture, shape, and manner of growth of their frontal protuberances. These projections, which are called antlers , and not horns, are bony, solid, and more or less branching ; they are also devoid of the horny casing which exists in all hollow-horned Buminants. u They fall off, and are renewed periodically every year up to a certain age, hence comes their descriptive appellation. In the adult individual the antler is composed of a cylindrical or flattened stem, according to the genus, which is called the brow-antler , from which branch out at intervals slighter and shorter additions, called tines or branches. The base of the brow- antler is surrounded with a circle of small bony excrescences, which afford a passage to the blood-vessels intended to provide for the growth of the antler ; these are called burrs. We must now turn to the various terms used to indicate the growth of the antlers. In the first place, on the brow of the young animal two small elevations or knobs are seen to make e/iCCH/IM Fig. 115.— Cliarolaise Bull. La their appearance, above each of which there soon grows a carti- i; laginous prolongation, which is not long before it assumes a bony texture. Until they become perfectly hard these two early i sprouts are protected against any external friction by a kind of velvety skin, which serves as a vehicle for the calcareous matter, and dries up as soon as ossification is accomplished, the beast getting rid of the velvet by rubbing its head against a tree. The short horns which then adorn its brow take the name of dags. At the commencement of the third year the dags fall off, but soon after they are replaced by other and longer ones, which throw out their first tines ; from this time they are considered as entitled to the name of antler. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 291 Every year, at a certain time, that is, immediately after the young are produced, the antlers fall off, and in growing again acquire an additional branch, up to the date when they attain the limit of maturity peculiar to each species. The falling off and periodical renewal of these bony, highly developed excrescences, is really a very curious phenomenon. It seems as if it ought to take several years for the horns to regain, as they do, equal or even larger dimensions than their prede- cessors; nevertheless, they shoot out all complete in the space of a few weeks. Still, the explanation of this fact is simple enough. The skin which covers the base of the antlers of this animal is traversed by a large number of blood-vessels, which supply the phosphate of lime necessary to solidify the bony parts. Up to the time when the antler has acquired the full growth which it is to attain in each year, this skin continues to receive the requisite flow of blood; it retains, in fact, its living action. But as soon as the growth is complete, and the ossification finished, the burrs increase in size, strangulate the vessels, and stop the flow of the alimentary fluid. This skin then withers and comes away from the antler, which, thus laid bare and no longer receiving nourishment, gradually wastes away or decays, and falls off at the end of a few months, again making its appearance in the approaching season. Except in the Reindeer, among Ruminants it is the ex- clusive attribute of the males to shed their antlers. There can be no doubt that some relation exists between the generative organs and these adornments ; for they fall off after the breeding season, and their duration might doubtless be prolonged by means of castration. It is probable that the various functions devolving on the female, such as gestation, parturition, and giving suck, divert the nourishing fluids from the head and concentrate them in other organs, and this is the physiological cause which deprives the weaker sex of antlers. A fact which confirms this likely hypothesis, is that antlers are often seen in barren females. Nearly all the members of this family are remarkable for the elegance of their shape, the dignity of their attitudes, the grace and vivacity of their movements, the slenderness of their limbs, and the sustained rapidity of their flight. They have a very short tail ; moderately sized and pointed ears ; their nostrils are generally u 2 292 MAMMALIA. situated in a muzzle, and their eye is clear and full of gentle- ness. In most of the species there is, below the internal angle of the eye, a small depression, called a tear-pit, which is nothing but a sort of gland, secreting a peculiar fluid. This gland is not, as might be supposed from the name, the place from which the tears proceed. The coat of Ruminants which shed their horns is generally I brown or fawn-coloured. It is composed of short, close, and brittle , hair, which assumes a somewhat woolly nature in the inclement regions of the extreme North, more especially in the winter j season. These Ruminants live in small droves or herds in forests, on mountains or plains, and feed on leaves, buds, grass, moss, or the bark of trees, &c. They are distributed over all the surface of !l the globe, both in the hottest and coldest climates. The Reindeer j and Elk are peculiar to the northern regions of both continents ; but numerous species are, on the contrary, allotted to hot and temperate countries. The family of Ruminants which shed their horns comprehends three genera — the Reindeer, the Elk, and the Deer properly so called — all differing in the shape and size of their antlers. Reindeer Genus (Tarandus). — The horns of the Reindeer present a characteristic arrangement, which enables us, without difficulty, to recognise the animal. From the principal stem, which is cylindrical and very short, spring two considerable branches, of flattened shape, the longest of which tends upwards with various twists, terminating in an indefinite number of branches ; the other, stretching horizontally over the muzzle, is more moderate in the number of its points. As a matter of course, it is only of the general conformation of these horns which we are here speaking, or, as it were, their typical shape, which may, indeed, j vary to an infinite degree without the chief lines of conformation ceasing, to exist. jj We have already said these antlers do not belong exclusively to | the male in this race ; the female also has them, but of smaller pro- ! portions. In the male animal, these antlers sometimes attain dimen- sions which are really extraordinary ; some have been measured !j which are nearly four feet long. This natural ornament is entirely renewed in eight months, and, in the females, five months suffice. THE ETTMINANT OEDEE. 293 The males and barren females lose their horns in the course of October ; the breeding females, on the contrary, do not shed them until the time of bringing forth, that is, in the month of May. The Reindeer (Fig. 116) is about the size of the Red Deer, but it is heavier built. Its head is wide, and rather resembles that of the Ox; but there is no muzzle, and the nostrils open in the midst of the hair. The legs are finely made, although less slender than those of the Stag, and are terminated by firm and strong feet. The latter are covered all over with stiff hair, even on the underneath part — a circumstance which singularly facilitates the animal's tread on ice and frozen snow. Its coat is rough, of a greyish brown colour, and is pendent under the throat ; in the winter it becomes woolly, and frequently changes colour to white. One of nature's precautions which cannot be too much admired, is the plan which is intended to protect the Reindeer's eye against the fatiguing brilliancy of the snow ; this is a third nictating eyelid, which, at the animal's will, covers the whole of the ocular globe. The Reindeer is a native of the icy deserts of the Arctic regions, and the most northerly countries in which man has placed his abode. It is found in Spitzbergen, Greenland, Lapland, Finland, and the whole of Northern Russia, in Siberia, Tartary, and, lastly, in Canada and all the adjacent isles. In Russia, it some- times migrates southward as far as the foot of the Caucasus. The Reindeer is a most valuable animal to the unfortunate people who dwell around the polar circle. Without it, existence in these high latitudes would scarcely be bearable. It is almost impossible to form a just idea of the services which this animal renders, more especially to the Laplanders, for to them it fills the place of both Horse, Ox, and Sheep ; for, when domesti- cated, it goes in harness like the first, and drags sledges and carriages even with great rapidity. On even ground, it can travel seven or eight leagues an hour; but its ordinary pace is from four to five leagues in that space of time. There is, in the palace of the King of Sweden, a picture represent- ing a Reindeer which carried an officer charged with urgent dispatches a distance of three hundred and twenty leagues in forty- eight hours ; that is to say, an uninterrupted pace of six Fig. 116.— Reindeer. THE EHMINANT ORDER. 295 leagues and a half an hour. At the end of the journey the poor animal is reported to have died. The mode of harnessing and driving the Reindeer is most simple. A collar of skin is fastened round its neck, and from this a trace hangs down, which, passing under the belly, is fastened into a hole bored in the front of the sledge. The rein consists of a single cord fastened to the root of the animal’ s antlers, and the driver drops it on the right or left side of the back, according to the side to which he wishes to direct the animal. The vehicle being very light, travelling may be rapidly performed in this equipage, but not without running some risk of breaking your neck ; for, to avoid being upset, one must be very skilful in this sort of locomotion. The Laplander is a perfect master of this art. We have not yet mentioned the most important articles this Ruminant of the arctic regions yields Man. The female produces milk superior to that of the Cow, and from it butter and cheese of excellent quality are made. Its flesh, which is nutritious and sweet, forms a precious alimentary resource, and almost the only one in the polar regions. Its coat furnishes thick and warm clothing, and its skin is converted into strong and supple leather. The long hairs on the neck of this animal are also used for sewing, while out of its tendons is manufactured string. From the old antlers of the Reindeer various utensils are made, such as spoons, knife-handles, &c., and when the horns are young, gelatine is extracted from them by submitting them to a severe course of boiling. Their excrement, when dried, is formed into bricks, which serve for fuel. Many tribes even turn to advantage the cropped lichens contained in the stomach of a slaughtered animal. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders add to these lichens chopped meat, blood, and fat ; when this is smoke-dried, they are extremely fond of it. The Toungouses, or nomadic inhabitants of Siberia, add wild berries to the above northern delicacy, then make it into cakes, which rank high among the articles of their cuisine. The Reindeer is truly an invaluable companion to the people of high latitudes. The poorest Laplander possesses at least several pairs ; while the wealthy have immense herds of from four to five hundred, even sometimes of several thousand of these animals. During the day they are taken to graze ; and at night they are 296 MAMMALIA. shut up in sheds, or left out of doors in an enclosure sufficiently high to shelter them from the attacks of wild beasts. These flocks need a great deal of supervision, as the Reindeer is somewhat inclined to return to its wild life if granted too much liberty. All the individuals composing these herds are marked with the brand of the proprietor, so that they may be recognised when they stray in the woods, or when the flocks get mixed. An unknown feeling induces the Wild Reindeer to unite in j vast herds, which migrate from one climate to another according to the seasons. In winter, they come down into the plains or valleys near the sea-coast, and there feed on the lichens which they excavate with their horns and feet from under the snow. In summer, they ascend the plateaux to graze on the buds and leaves of mountain shrubs. They are, moreover, induced to select these elevated situations in the warm season to lessen the attacks j of the Horse and Gad-flies, which otherwise would incessantly prey upon them. The latter insects, at the time when these quadrupeds change their coat, deposit their eggs on the surface of the skin ; the larvae, after they are hatched, penetrate under the epidermis, causing acute pain. Hunting Reindeer is actively prosecuted in every country where they exist. The time of their migration, in the spring and autumn, is the period when the greatest havoc in their ranks are made. For, through ignorance, stupidity, or fear, they precipitate them- selves en masse into passes, where they succumb in vast numbers to the blows of those who are lying in wait for them. As there are always numerous streams to be crossed in their route, and as when immersed in the water they are more completely at Man’s mercy, such situations are frequently selected by the hunter. Sometimes the slaughter made on such occasions is immense. The autumn hunting is always more productive than that of the spring ; in the first place, these animals then are much fatter than they are after enduring the severity of winter; and, in the next place, the j water- courses, which are then completely thawed, afford greater advantage to the pursuers. Extreme cold is a necessary of existence to the Reindeer. : When this animal is conveyed into warm, or only temperate climates, it soon dies, and never reproduces ; the menagerie of the Museum of Natural History in Paris, and the Zoological THE EUMINANT OEDEE. 297 Gardens of London, however, generally manage to keep a few specimens. The Elk Genus (Aloes). — The Elk, like the Reindeer, is charac- terised by the peculiar form of its horns. They do not spread out into branches either at the base or middle part ; but from their burr or commencement they widen out into a large palmated surface, which is terminated by a series of rather deep jags or notchings. These horns are solid, and are consequently very heavy ; in adults, their weight attains occasionally to as much as eighty pounds. To support a mass of this kind a strong and thick- set neck is necessary; in fact, when an Elk is examined, the shortness and thickness of this part of the body cannot fail to attract the observer’s notice. It is the largest member of the family of Ruminants which shed their horns, its size being not inferior to that of the Horse. There is a deficiency of grace in the shape of this animal, for the fore- quarters are much higher than the hinder ones. Its large head is terminated by an elongated upper lip, perforated by somewhat wide nostrils. This lip is mobile, and constitutes a very delicate organ of touch and pre- hension. This peculiarity of organisation formerly gave rise to the belief that the Elk could only crop grass when going backwards. Its coat, which is composed of coarse, rough, and brittle hair, rises into a small mane on the nape of the neck, and along the dorsal spine. The long black hair under the throat forms a kind of beard, and in the male animal covers a considerable protuberance. The general colour of the coat is brown, varying in shade according to the season. Its speed is very great, and its endurance wonderful : but the pace is generally a trot, seldom a gallop. The Elk (Eig. 117) is, like the Reindeer, an inhabitant of the northern regions of the Old and Hew Worlds ; but it does not roam so far north, and wanders farther south ; and is not found inside the polar circle. In Europe, it is distributed over a part of Scandinavia, Prussia, Poland, and Russia. It formerly lived in all parts of Germany, and Julius Caesar spoke of it as existing in the immense Hyrcanian forest, of which the limits were not then known. Siberia, Tartary, and the north of the Chinese Empire, are the Asiatic countries in which it is met with in greatest abundance ; and in America it is found in Canada, and the adjacent northern parts of the United States. 298 MAMMALIA. The Elk swims with great facility. During the summer it submerges its whole body, except the head, and in this way preserves itself from the stings of the Horse-fly : thus it passes the greater portion of the day, when it principally subsists upon aquatic herbage. It is also partial to damp forests and marshy localities. This animal feeds off the ground with difficulty, on account of the shortness of its neck; in order the better to reach the grass, it kneels or straddles its fore-legs. It prefers, however, to browse off the young shoots, buds, Fig. 117. — The Elk or Moose ( Cervus alces , Linn.) and bark of trees, and from this cause furnishes the hunters with a certain indication of its vicinity. The Elks live in small families composed of one male, a female, and the young of two generations. The females, at their first parturition, bring forth only a single calf, but afterwards always two. They watch over their offspring with vigilance, and protect them with the greatest courage from the attacks of their enemies. This Ruminant has a very highly-developed sense of hearing THE RUMINANT ORDER. 299 and smell, which, enable it to avoid its enemies. From its great strength and length of limb, even among the thick snow, unless it be crusted by a previous thaw, it trots rapidly. It flies from Man (except at the rutting season, or when wounded or disabled), and retires before the advance of cultivation. When incapaci- tated for flight it will vigorously defend itself. To approach it at this critical moment is excessively dangerous, for with its foot it is able to strike a fearful blow, so severe that it has been known to kill the large Grey Wolf with a single kick. In the Old as well as the New World this mammoth and noble species of game is becoming annually scarcer, for it is hunted with the greatest perseverance. The most destructive mode is that adopted by the white and Indian population of Canada, viz., running them on snow-shoes — a wooden frame, covered with net- work— which support the hunter on the crusted surface, while the Elk sinks through it chest- deep, and consequently soon becomes exhausted, when its life is taken with the rifle. Another method is enticing the males within range of fire-arms by imitating the female’s call. Among the Carnivora, the chief enemies of the Elk are he same as those of the Eeindeer, viz., the Bear, the Wolf, and ke Glutton. The Elk, when captured young, may be completely tamed without difficulty. It recognises the person who takes care of it, and will follow him like a dog, manifesting consider- able joy on seeing him after a separation. It goes in harness as well as the Eeindeer, and can thus perform long journeys. For two or three centuries it was used for this purpose in Sweden, but the custom is now given up. Its flesh has a good flavour, and is very nourishing. Its skin, hair, and antlers are all employed for useful purposes. It is impossible to understand why hardly any attempts have been made to domesticate such a useful animal in those climates suited to it, and thus prevent the destruction which threatens to entirely extirpate the race. The Leer Genus ( Germs ). — The Deer genus comprehends a somewhat large number of species distributed over the warm and temperate regions of both continents. These animals are remarkable for their grace, elegance, [and agility, and possess the common characteristic of being furnished 300 MAMMALIA. with a real muzzle, or bare space in which the nostrils open. The various species differ somewhat in the shape of their antlers, and the colour of their coat, which is sometimes all of a fawn- coloured shade, sometimes dotted over with white spots during their youth, and sometimes mottled during the whole of their life. The principal species are the Common Stag, the Large Stag of Canada, or Wapiti, the Yirginian Stag, the Axis, the Porcine Deer, the Fallow Deer, and the Common Roe. The Red Deer ( Cervus elaphus) is certainly one of the most beautiful of European animals. It forms the chief ornament of our forests, owing to the majestic antlers which adorn its head, and its stately and graceful bearing. This quadruped is about the size of a small Horse. Pennant mentions one that weighed eighteen stone. Its coat, which varies accord- ing to the season, changes from light brown in summer to greyish in winter. It has generally a very gentle and timid dis- position, and dreads the presence of Man, taking flight at the slightest alarm. On the contrary, when not disturbed, it mani- fests an amount of laziness which contrasts strangely with its extraordinary agility. When arrived at a certain age, and in full possession of all its strength, the Stag loves solitude, and in localities where possible, confines itself during the whole summer to thickets and woods, scarcely coming forth except at night to search for sustenance ; this done, it again retires to the thickest brake, to rest and digest its food. At the end of autumn it visits the plains, making its way into badly- enclosed gardens, where it satisfies its appetite with the agriculturist’s cereals and fruit. If there should not be a sufficiency of the latter on the ground, the Stag increases the supply by standing upright against the trunk of the tree, and using its antlers as a pole to knock down enough to satisfy its appetite. The favourite food of the Red Deer is grass, leaves, fruits, and buds ; but as none of these can be found in winter, it is com- pelled to eat moss, heath, and lichens. When the ground is covered with snow it will feed upon the bark of trees. At this season of the year they assemble in numerous herds under the tallest trees of the forest, to obtain shelter from the north wind, when they crowd closely against one another for warmth. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 3.01' In the early part of September a great change takes place in the Stag’s characteristics and ways of life, for the breeding season has arrived. Then he ranges the wood, uttering a deep guttural bellowing, seeking the females, and bidding defiance to his own i sex. Excited, and almost furious, he rushes hither and thither with a wild air, tearing up the ground impatiently with his feet, dashing his head against the bushes and with violence scattering the foliage. How he appears to have lost all sense of danger, for, contrary to his usual habits, if any suspicious object appears, he runs at it. At length the Stag assembles round him several Hinds and forms a seraglio, of which he becomes exclusive master, watching over its members with anxious jealousy. If a rival happen to appear, a combat a outrance immediately takes place. The two adversaries rush impetuously one against the other ; on their feet and knees they fight ; long and obstinate are such battles ; wounds are given and received, and blows are parried with consummate skill. Sometimes their antlers get entangled to that extent that they are unable to separate. Hastened together, the two heroes strive in vain to disentangle themselves, and some of these hostile couples, thus closely riveted together, ultimately perish of famine. When the duel is ended, by the death or flight of one of the champions, the conqueror remains master of the seraglio, until a competitor drives him away and assumes possession of all his privileges. After two or three weeks of this life of excitement and fatigue, additionally aggravated by scantiness of food and the want of sleep, the Stag is thoroughly enfeebled. He then retires into soli- tude, to restore his exhausted strength. But the season is now so far advanced, that it is not before spring that he thoroughly recovers his former condition. The Hind goes eight months with young. In May she brings forth, in a thicket, one Fawn, very rarely two, the body of which is covered with white spots on a yellow ground. At six months old the young change their appearance, and the rudiments of the antlers appear. In about a year, the dags having shot out, the knobber becomes a brock. At the commencement of the third year the second crop of horns begin to rise, with indications of branching, or, in terms of venery, it begins to show a head . The Stag produces every year a new head of horns, and its age is 302 generally indicated by tbem. At six years old, tbat is, when the fifth, bead bas grown, it is said to possess a full bead; in tbe following years, and up to tbe end of its life, it is a Royal Stag. Tbe borns of tbe Stag are cylindrical, baying tbe branches, more or less in number, according to tbe age of tbe animal, ; pretty regularly distributed both to tbe right and left. How- ever, even when tbe ages are equal, tbe number of branches occasionally vary in Stags from tbe influence of circumstances. I When a Stag bas lived ten years, or thereabouts, tbe antlers flatten out and become more or less palmated, which throw out points resembling fingers. When these are arranged in a circular shape, tbe Stag is said to carry a round head. Tbe glance of tbe Stag is mild in its character. Its power of vision is indifferent, but its bearing is excellent, and its sense of smell very acute. Tbe wounds made with its borns are dangerous, being extremely difficult to cure. Stag-bunting, except perhaps in tbe opinion of fox-hunters, is considered tbe type of all pursuits of tbe chase. It bas been deemed for centuries tbe most noble of pleasures; and, as it | entails an enormous outlay, it bas always been tbe amuse- ment of tbe highest either in point of wealth or nobility. ; Stag-bunting is quite an art, which, like others, bas its special vocabulary. In tbe first place, it requires a large pack of jj Hounds, and a considerable number of attaches. Let us here I add a description bow this sport is followed in France. Tbe whole chase is directed by tbe huntsman, who ought to have I tbe most perfect and accurate knowledge of tbe habits of tbe i game — a faculty which can hardly be acquired, except by con- stant practice and long experience. Tbe huntsman examines j tbe track of tbe animal which bas been left in tbe soil, and ascertains both its form and size ; also tbe markings of its borns on tbe trees and bushes ; be scrutinises its lair, where it last laid down. From these and hosts of other observations tbat be can make, the enumeration of which would be uninteresting, a good huntsman can with certainty tell whether be bas un- kenneled a Fawn, a Brock, a young Stag, a Six-year-old, an aged Stag, or a Hind. Tbe animal being such as desired, tbe pack are taken up, THE RUMINANT ORDER. 303 and a few old Hounds are placed upon the trail to unkennel it. A short interval usually occurs before the game is afoot, and then the hunt commences. At first the Stag, trusting to its fleet- i ness, with its head well-up, runs with assurance ; hut after a time, it feels its strength diminish, and tries artifice, doubling hack over its scent, so as to set the Hounds at fault. Sometimes it endeavours to make them change their quarry, hy unharhouring another of his species, and, taking refuge in some thicket, or i making the best of its way in a fresh direction, uses all means to avoid detection. Occasionally this manoeuvre meets with success, invariably it causes delay, and thus time is gained, enabling, by a period of rest, the harassed and exhausted creature to regain ; its failing strength. In spite of all the resources suggested by its instinct, in spite of its. wonderful activity, the Stag rarely escapes from those who have made its capture a point of honour. After an uninterrupted run of twelve or fourteen leagues, the unfortu- nate animal still finds the pack constantly behind it, and frequently increased by fresh relays of hounds. It hears the cries of the pursuers, and the sound of the horn resounds in its ears. Incapable of sustaining the contest any longer, it attempts a final effort for life, plunges into the nearest pond or river, hoping to place a liquid barrier between itself and its enemies. Fatal illusion ! the pack rush after it, press upon it, surround it, and pull it down, while the blasts of the horn sound its death- warrant. (Fig. 118). The fatal moment has arrived, and the Stag must die.* The noble animal collects all its remaining energy, and prepares to sell its life as dearly as possible. He distributes furious blows with its antlers to the right and left, knocking over the nearest Dogs. But, overcome by numbers, exhausted and worn out, it is ultimately surrounded and pulled down by the infuriated pack, when it receives the final blow, the coup-de-grace, from the chief personage of the hunt. The feet of the victim are retained as a trophy by those who rode most prominent in the chase. In the different regions of the Old and New World, the Stag is represented by a number of analogous species. In North America a magnificent animal is met with ; this is called the * In England the Stag is generally reserved for future amusement. THE RUMINANT ORDER. 305 Large Stag of Canada, or Wapiti ( Cervus canadensis). This animal bears some resemblance to the Elk, whose name the ignorant gave it. It is easily tamed, and soon becomes used to confinement. The North American Indians catch it in snares when young, and rear it with care. At maturity they harness it to their sledges during the winter, and its powerful frame enables it to draw heavy loads. Their flesh, which is excellent, forms a large portion of the Red Man’s sustenance. The Virginian Deer ( Cariacus virginianus) is common in the United States. There it is the favourite animal of chase. It is larger than our Fallow Deer, and is excessively abundant in some portion of that country ; but so many of them are annually slaughtered that, before a hundred years are past, says Audubon, this animal will have become an extraordinary rarity. Thus, on the part of man, we always find the same thoughtlessness and the same abuse of the good gifts of Providence ! Their death is generally accomplished by the hunter stalking on them unawares, when they are shot, or driving them from cover when their favourite passes, which are easily distinguished by the expe- rienced, are guarded by marksmen. The Indian continent and Malay Islands produce several very remarkable species of Stags. First let us mention the Samboo, or Aristotle Deer (Rasa Aristotelis ), so called (Fig. 119) because it was first described by that celebrated philosopher of antiquity ; then the Axis (Axis maculata ), a very elegant animal with a fawn- coloured coat speckled with white, and horns furnished with only two branches ; and lastly, the Porcine Deer (Hyelaphus porcinus) , which owes its name to its small size and massive shape. In Bengal, these two last-named species are reared in a domesti- cated state, and fattened for the table. They readily reproduce their kind in the warm and temperate parts of Europe, as has been proved by the various specimens which are how living in the Jardin des Plantes. It would be a very desirable thing if they could be acclimatised in some of the European forests, and made to furnish food for the people. The Fallow Deer (Rama vulgaris ), Fig. 120, holds a middle place in size between the Red Deer and the Roe. Its height, at the withers, is little more than ten hands. It may be easily recog- nised by its horns, which are round at the base, and palmated x 306 MAMMALIA. above. Its coat, like that of the Axis, is fawn-coloured or brown, dotted over with white spots, which in summer are very distinctly marked, but are scarcely perceptible in winter. Its habits differ but slightly from those of the Red Deer. By the same claim as the Red Deer, the Fallow Deer is honoured Fig. 119. — The Samboo ( Cervus unicolor, H. Smith). by the high notice of huntsmen of princely race. It is pre- 1 served in many of our large parks, not only as an ornament, but for the chase. In a state of nature, the Fallow Deer is not partial to large forests, but prefers woods intersected by fields and hills. It has recourse, when hunted, to the same stratagems as the Stag to throw its pursuers off its track. The Fallow Deer is found THE BUMINANT ORDER. 307 over a large part of Europe, in the north, of Africa, and also in Asia Minor. The Roe Deer ( Capreolus dorcas) is one of the most elegant and graceful representatives of the genus Cervus; it does not measure much more than a yard in length. Its horns are small, and very simple in their shape. They are composed of a deeply indented stem, which is straight for the greater part of its length, and furnished at the top with two short branches, forming a fork at the extremity. Its coat is a uniform fawn- colour, the shade of which varies with the season. It has "Fig. 120. — Fallow Deer ( Cervus dama, Linn.) neither tear-pits nor any vestige of tail, and on the end of its muzzle there is a white marking, edged with black. The Roe differs from the Red Deer in its habits ; it does not live in herds or practise polygamy. The male remains attached for life to the companion he has chosen ; he never quits her for an instant, and devotes himself, with her, to the rearing of their young family. The most affectionate relationship exists between him and his mate ; they are content one with the other, and voluntarily confine themselves to solitude. The Roes frequent young woods and thickets in the vicinity of cultivated ground, where they delight to crop the buds and x 2 308 MAMMALIA. shoots, thus doing considerable mischief in plantations. They are timid, intelligent, and gentle ; the least unaccustomed noise frightens them. Still, all their precautions are not sufficient to protect them against the multitude of huntsmen eager for their capture — an eagerness the more excusable as the Roe ; furnishes the finest venison. The sport of Roe-hunting (Fig. 121) takes place in France ; with less ostentation than that of the Stag, hut the same instruments are employed, namely, Hounds and Horses. In Scotland they are generally driven by beaters through passes guarded by marksmen, when they are shot. and through several parts of Asia. Tribe of Hornless Ruminants. — The Musk Deer (. Moschus ) is, with the exception of the Camel, the only Ruminant without horns. In its general form, and the whole character of its organi- sation, it resembles the last described ; it has no incisors in the THE RUMINANT ORDER. 309 upper jaw, but possesses two long and strong dog-teeth, which extend beyond the lower lip ; these teeth are the exclusive attri- bute of the male. Musk Deer have a muzzle like Stags, but no tear-pits ; and their tail is short. The smallness of their size, the elegance of their shape, combined with the grace and nimbleness of their movements, cause these animals to be much admired. The Musk family comprehends but a small number of species, which chiefly inhabit the Indian continent and adjacent islands ; not a single representative of it is found in America. The two principal are the Tibet Musk ( Moschus moschiferus , Linn.), and the Napu (Tragulus javanicus, Pallas). The Tibet Musk is about the size of the Poe; it inhabits the mountainous regions of the centre of Asia, and is distributed over an area of more than a thousand leagues in latitude, and about fifteen hundred in longitude ; it is met with as far as southern Siberia. It lives in solitude on inaccessible rocks, in the vicinity of glaciers, during summer ; in the winter, it descends into the woodlands. As it is very timid, and flees from the presence of Man, to capture it, therefore, it is necessary to have recourse to snares and traps. The Toungouses, the nomadic inhabitants of Tartary and Asiatic Pussia, kill this animal with bows and arrows, having enticed it within reach by imitating the cry of their young. This animal is hunted for the sake of a strongly- scented sub- stance, which is secreted in a pouch situated under the abdomen, known as mush , a perfume insupportable to some noses, but with which others love to impregnate their persons. The male alone produces this scent. In winter, at the pairing season, it is of the best quality ; this, therefore, is the season chosen for the animal’s pursuit. Musk is not only made use of as a perfume, but is also em- ployed as an antispasmodic medicine ; it is sold in trade along with the receptacle which contains it, and its price is always very high. We append a most interesting description of the habits of this animal, written by a celebrated sportsman, and published in Land and Water: — “ From the first high ridge above the plains, to the limits of the forest in the snowy range, and for perhaps the whole length 310 MAMMALIA. of the chain of the Himalayas, the Musk Deer may he found upon every hill of an elevation above 8,000 feet which is clothed with forest. On the lower ranges it is comparatively a rare animal, being confined to near the summits of the highest hills, as we approach the colder forests near the snow; but it is nowhere particularly numerous, and its retired and solitary habits make it appear still more rare than it really is. Exclusively a forest animal, it inhabits all kinds of forests indiscriminately, from the oaks of the lower hills to the stunted bushes near the limits of vegetation. If we may judge from their numbers, the preference seems to be given to the birch forests, where the underwood consists chiefly of the white rhododendron and juniper. “ In many respects they are not unlike Hares in habits and economy. Each individual selects some particular spot for its favourite retreat, about which it remains still and at rest through- out the day, leaving it in the evening to search for food, or wander about, returning soon after daylight. They will occa- sionally rest for the day in any place where they may happen to be in the morning, but in general they return to near the same spot almost every day, making forms in different quarters of their retreat a little distance from each other, and visiting them in turn. Sometimes they will lie under the same tree or bush for weeks together. They make forms in the same manner as Hares, levelling with their feet a spot large enough for the purpose, if the ground is too sloping. They seldom, if ever, lie in the sun, even in the coldest weather, and their forms are always made where there is something to shelter them from its rays. Towards evening they begin to move, and during the night appear to wander about a good deal, from top to bottom of the hill, or from one side to another. In the day they are seldom seen moving about. Their nocturnal rambles are apparently as much for recreation as in search of food, as they often visit regularly some steep ledge of rock or precipice, where there is little or no vegetation. The mountaineers believe that they come to such places to play and dance with each other, and often set their snares along the edge of such a ledge or precipice, in preference to the forest. “ If not walking leisurely and slowly along, the Musk Deer always goes in bounds, all fours leaving and alighting on the THE RUMINANT ORDER. 311 ground together. When at full speed these bounds are some- times astonishing for so small an animal. In a gentle slope I have seen them clear a space of more than sixty feet at a single bound, for several successive leaps, and spring over bushes of considerable height at the same time. They are very sure- footed, and although a forest animal, in travelling over rocky and precipitous ground have perhaps no equal. Where even the wild Burrel Sheep ( Ovis nahura) is obliged to move slowly and carefully, the Musk Deer hounds quickly and fearlessly ; and although I have often driven them on to rocks which I have thought it impossible that they could cross, they have invariably found a way in some direction, and I never knew an instance of one missing its footing, or falling, unless wounded. “ They eat but little compared to other Ruminating animals, at least one would imagine so from the small quantity found in their stomachs, the contents of which are always in such a pulpy state that it is impossible to tell what food they prefer. I have often shot them whilst feeding, and found in the mouth or throat various kinds of shrubs and grasses, and often the long white lichen that hangs so luxuriantly from the trees in the higher forests. Roots also seem to form a portion of their food, as they scratch holes in the ground, like many of the Hill Pheasants. The mountaineers believe that the males kill and eat snakes, and feed upon the leaves of a small and very fragrant- smelling laurel, but from the few occasions upon which I have seen this laurel stripped of any portion of its leaves, it does not appear to afford a very favourite repast. “ The young are born either in June or July, and almost every female brings forth yearly, and often twins. These are always deposited in separate places some distance from each other, the dam herself keeping apart from both, and only visiting to give them suck. Should a young one be caught, its bleating will sometimes bring the old one to the spot ; but I never knew an instance of one being seen abroad with its dam, or of two young ones being seen together. Their solitary habits are innate, for if a Fawn is taken young and suckled by a Sheep or Goat, it will not for some time associate with its foster-dam, but as soon as satisfied with sucking seeks some spot for concealment. It is amusing to see them suck, for all the while they keep leaping up 312 MAMMALIA. and crossing their fore-legs rapidly oyer each, other. They are rather difficult to rear, as many, soon after they are caught, go blind and die. “ In most of the hill states the Musk Deer is considered a royal property. In some the rajahs keep men purposely to hunt it, and in Gurwhal a fine is imposed upon any mountaineer who is known to have sold a musk-pod to a stranger, the rajah receiving them in lieu of rent.” The flesh of the Musk is excellent, if the musk-hag is taken Fig. 122. — The Napu, or Pigmy Musk Deer ( Moschus Napu , F. Cuvier J. from the animal immediately after death. Its skin and long dog-teeth are also made use of. The Napu, or Pigmy Musk Deer [Moschus javanicus, Daffies), Fig. 122, is the smallest of Ruminants ; it is not larger than a Hare. Its limbs are excessively delicate, and its power of leaping is extraordinary; but it is wanting in energy, and allows itself to he captured, without effort to escape, by the Malays of Java and Sumatra, who seek it for its flesh, or to make pets of. Yery little is known of their habits. They have been introduced into Europe, but the natural delicacy of their constitution has in- variably prevented their living any length of time.* * A pair which we brought from Java, and presented to her Majesty, were after- wards forwarded by her to the Begent’s Park Gardens. They only lived a few months. — Ed. ORDER OF EDENTATA. The designation of Edentated (toothless), applied to the Mam- mals which compose this Order, does not infer that they are completely devoid of teeth, although this is really the case in several species, but only that in them the incisors are always wanting, so that there is an empty space in front of their jaws. Another peculiarity which characterises this Order is that their teeth, when they have any, are, as nearly as possible, all alike, and not of various shapes, as in most Mammals ; added to this, the root of each tooth is single, having but one fang. In individuals of the Order Edentata, the limbs are terminated by very strong claws, which are used for climbing or scratching. These animals are, in general, of a clumsy form, slow in their motions, and possessed of but little intelligence. Some, instead of being clothed with hair, are covered with scales — a pecu- liarity which adds to the strangeness of their appearance. Their habits and system of feeding differ much in the various families : some living on vegetables, others on animal substances ; some burrowing in holes, others living on trees. All, how- ever, are natives of the warm regions, both of the Old and New World ; none exist in Europe, and the larger number of them are found in South America. They never attain great size, the largest species measuring about three feet in length, not including the tail. This, however, was not always the case. Deep in the bowels of the earth the remains of some of this Order have been found, the races of which have long been extinct, and their vast proportions are a just cause of astonishment. Of this kind are the Glyptodon, the Mylodon , the Megatherium, &c. Most of these fossil species are pecu- liar to America, and their dimensions equal those of the Ox, 314 the Rhinoceros, and even the Elephant. Europe maintained one species quite as large as the American Megatherium ; this is the Macrotherium of M. Lartet. The Edentata include five families of no great extent : the Sloths , Armadillos , Aard-vark , Ant-eaters , and Pangolins . The Sloth ( Tarcligrada , Guy.) Family. — The Sloths are a I strange kind of animal, which, from their more prominent characteristics and climbing habits, were for a long time classed among the Monkeys ; but a more attentive study of their habits has led to their being referred to the Order of Edentata. When they are examined on the ground they appear deformed, and, i as it were, incapable of active motion ; for on the surface of the ; earth they can only move with extreme slowness. This pecu- J liarity is the origin of their name. In fact, their fore-legs are so much longer than the hind ones, that in walking they are obliged to drag themselves along on their knees. Owing to the size of their pelvis and thighs, which turn outwards, they are unable to bring the knees together. Only the inner edge of their feet rest upon the ground ; and, lastly, their toes, the number of which never exceeds three, are enveloped in skin up to the very tips, and must be constantly kept in a state of mutual dependence with regard to motion. It will be readily understood that limbs thus formed are not well adapted for locomotion on the earth ; it is, indeed, difficult to form an idea of the awkwardness of a Sloth when placed upon the ground. But if we follow with our eye its motions on a tree, in the midst of those conditions of existence which are natural to it, the Sloth leaves on our mind a very different impression. We then recognise that there is in them no want of harmony, and that they, like every other creature, possess the means of pro- tecting themselves from the attacks of their enemies. They embrace the branches with their strong arms, and bury in the bark the enormous claws which terminate their four limbs. As the last joint of their toes is movable, they can bend them to a certain extent, and thus convert their claws into powerful hooks, which enable them to hang on trees. Hidden in the densest foliage, they browse at their ease on all that sur- rounds them ; or, firmly fixed by three of their legs, they avail ORDER OF EDENTATA. 315 themselves of the fourth to gather the fruit and convey it to their mouths. No doubt* during the day, they appear indolent and sleepy ; but the fact is, that their eyes are not fitted for brilliant sunlight. Their movements aloft betray no sense of embarrass- ment, and they can in no way be looked upon, in such situation, as being awkward. They certainly seem almost devoid of intelli- gence, but they are, in this respect, no worse off than the rest of their Order. Their stomach, like the Ruminants, is divided into four com- partments ; but it is not known whether they chew the cud. Their coat is harsh, abundant, and long ; and they have neither tail nor any visible external ear. They are natives of the virgin forests of South America ; the two best known being the Unau ( Cholcepus ), and the A'i {Brady pus tridac- tylus), Fig. 123, which are found in Guiana, Brazil, Peru, and Columbia. The Unau ( Cholcepus , De Plain ville) has but two toes on its hind feet, and measures about thirty inches in length ; the menageries in London and Paris have been in possession of specimens of this creature, which was fed on bread soaked in milk, with vegetables and fruit. The Ai is rather smaller than the TTnau. 316 MAMMALIA. The Armadillos (Dasypus, Linn.) — This family is remark- able for the very peculiar nature of tbeir outward integu- ment, wbicb, at first sight, might lead to their being taken for Reptiles. Instead of being clad in hair, like other Mammals, they have the upper part of the head, the top and sides of the body and the tail protected by a scaly cuirass, very hard in its nature. This cuirass is composed of a number of bony plates, arranged in parallel rows and of various shapes ; it is not separate Eig. 124.— Pebas (D. peba , Desmarest). from the skin, hut forms a very curious modification of it. On the head, the fore-part of the body, and the croup, these plates are firmly fixed to one another ; hut on the middle of the back they are possessed of a certain amount of mobility, so as to move one over the other. In this way, the animal has the power of executing various bending and stretching movements, for instance, of rolling itself up into a ball whenever it is attacked, so as to hide under its cuirass all the vulnerable parts of its body, that is, those which are merely covered with hair. The other characteristics of the Armadillos are short legs, provided generally with five toes, terminated by long claws, OEDEE OF EDENTATA. 317 which are used to scratch up the ground; ears pretty- well developed, upright, and pointed ; nostrils perforating an elongated snout, and detecting very acutely any odoriferous emanation ; a tail either long or rounded, or short and flat. In some species, the number of teeth is considerable : the Great Armadillo (D. gig as) has no less than ninety- eight. The Armadillos are natives of the great plains of South America, where they dig burrows, composed of one chamber, entered by numerous passages. They feed partly on vegetable and partly on animal substances, more especially insects and carrion. They are inoffensive and stupid in their nature. Their size is generally small ; the largest species — that just alluded to, which considerably exceeds all the rest — is not much more than a yard in length. The smallest of the species is about the size of a Rat ; it is called the Pichiy (D. minutus ). The Orycteroptjs (Geoffroy). — This family seems to have been created for one Mammal alone ( 0 . capensis), the Aard-vark, which is peculiar to Africa, abounding especially in the southern portion of this part of the world. The Aard-vark is short-legged ; its claws are thick, sharp, and almost like hoofs, indicating habits of an essentially burrowing nature. Its skin is hard, and covered with scanty and rough hair ; its head, which is very long and tapering, is terminated by a kind of snout. Its mouth is furnished with molar teeth of a very peculiar structure. They are small cylinders, with a crown, which is flat and devoid of enamel ; they are formed of a substance which is softer than usual, and indeed almost spongy in its nature, being constituted by an agglomeration of a large number of microscopic tubes, closely fitted to one another in a vertical direction. If a horizontal section is made of one of these teeth, it presents the appearance of a piece of cane. The Aard-vark measures rather more than three feet in' length, not including the tail, which is about a foot and a half long. Its height is eighteen inches. It lives in burrows, which it hollows out with great rapidity. When its head and fore-feet are buried in the ground, it maintains its position with so much obstinacy that the strongest man is unable to draw it out. 318 MAMMALIA. Its food consists of Ants, or rather Termites , insects which are commonly designated by the name of White Ants, on account of their resemblance to very large 'specimens of the race. It is well known that these Termites live enclosed in a mound of earth in the form of a dome. The Aard-vark, squatting down by the side of it, scratches till an entrance is effected through the walls, and immediately legions of the insects rush out to defend their habitation. Without losing a moment, the quadruped darts out its tongue, which is covered with a viscous humour, into the midst of the restless crowd, and then draws it back covered with the victims. This exclusive description of food communicates to the flesh a strongly acidulated taste, nevertheless the Hottentots and the colonists at the Cape of Good Hope are partial to it, and hunt these animals. A slight blow on the head with a stick is sufficient to kill it. The Aard-vark is met with not only at the Cape of Good Hope, but also in Abyssinia and Senegambia. The Ant-eaters ( Myrmecophaga , Linn.) feed upon a variety of insects, and thus are better off than the last-named animal. It is specially organised for procuring this food. Completely destitute of teeth, the head is terminated by an elongated tube, which encloses a very long and extensile tongue, something like a worm, which issues forth through a small orifice placed at the extremity of its scabbard-like head. This slender and flexible tongue, being darted into the Ant-hills, all the interstices where the insects take refuge yield numerdus victims, which adhere to it through the gummy secretion with which it is covered. To conclude the description of the Ant-eaters, we must add that they are armed with sharp claws, useful both as instruments for scratch- ing and weapons of defence. The most remarkable species of the family is the Great Ant- eater ( Myrmecophaga jubata ), Fig. 125, the largest of the family, and even of the Edentated Order. It attains to more than a yard and a half in length, from the tip of its muzzle to the junction of its tail. Its coat is rough, abundant, and of a darkish colour. The tail, covered with very long and extremely bushy hair, has the power of being raised like a plume, and is more than a yard in length. The strength of this animal is so consider- OEDEE OF EDENTATA. 319 able, that it can defend itself successfully against the ferocious Jaguar, which it either hugs, like a bear, or tears to pieces with its formidable claws. It is nocturnal, solitary, and listless in its habits, and delights in damp forests and marshy savannahs, in which its insect food is most abundant. The female only produces a single young one at a time, which she constantly carries on her back. Fig. 125. — Great Ant-eater, or Ant Bear ( M.jubata , Linn.) In the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, which was in possession of two specimens, they were fed on bread, soaked in milk, and eggs ; but it became certain that they had also a taste for blood, as they were one day noticed sucking the flesh of a rabbit which had been given them. There are two other species of the Ant-eater, which live more or less on trees, and enjoy, on this account, one of the character- istics which are peculiar to American Monkeys — that of grasping branches firmly with the tail, a portion of which is bare of 320 MAMMALIA. hair underneath, and capable of being twisted round any object. These species are the Tamandua (M. tamandua , Cuv.), an Ant- eater about three feet long, which divides its sphere of action between the ground and the thick foliage of trees, and the Little,, or Two-toed Ant-eater (AT. dydactyla , Linn.), so called because it has only two toes, instead of four, on the front feet. This latter species is a native of Brazil and Gruiana. It hut seldom descends to the ground, and is not much larger than a Bat. The Fig. 126.— Short-tailed Pangolin [M. brachyura, Erxleben). female of this species also brings forth hut one at a birth, ^which she places in a nest, lined with leaves, formed in a hole in a tree. The Pangolins (Manis, Linn.) — The Pangolins are also Ant- eaters, hut the peculiar nature of the covering of their bodies will not allow them to be classed with the preceding family. The hair of their coat is glued together so as to form large scales, inserted in the skin in nearly the same way as the nails of a Man, and lapping one over the other, like the slates of a roof. These scales cover the whole body and legs, except the belly and lower portions of the head. Hence, from their strong resemblance to Beptiles, the name Scaly Lizard has been applied to these creatures. The Pangolin (from the J avanese word Pangoeling , meaning to ORDER OF EDENTATA. 321 roll into a ball) have short legs, furnished with stout claws ; they are devoid of any external ear, and present no trace of teeth. Their method of feeding is exactly the same as that of the Ant-eaters ; but their head, although elongated in shape, is not quite so long or eccentric in appearance, and their tongue is less slender. They dwell in forests, where they dig burrows, or lodge in the hollow of trees. When they are attacked, they roll themselves into a ball, like the Armadillo ; at the same time their scales are erected, forming an impregnable buckler. This family possesses several species. The Pangolins are of medium size ; they never exceed a yard in total length. They are natives of the Old World exclusively ; India and the Malay Isles, the south of China, and a great part of Africa, are the regions which have been allotted to them by nature. y ORDER OE CARNIVORA. In the Carnivora are included the strongest and most formidable of all terrestrial Mammals. Being endowed with proclivities of a most violent nature, and organised for slaughter and carnage, they all feed more or less on flesh and blood, spreading terror around them. They are marked out by Providence to play a special part— that of limiting the multiplication of the herbivo- rous species ; and, strange as it may appear at first sight, their disappearance from the surface of the earth might lead to serious inconvenience. Although animal matter in all cases forms some part of their sustenance, all the individuals of this Order do not live upon it exclusively, as there are some which add to it vegetable diet in different proportions. Some, indeed, are more herbi- vorous than carnivorous. Hence arise variations of greater or less extent in the organs of the nutritive apparatus, especially in the digestive canal and the dental system, and very important characteristics which are derived from this class of modification. The Carnivora possess, as a rule, three kinds of teeth — incisors, dog-teeth or fangs, and molars. The incisors, placed in front, are six in number in each jaw, excepting in the Sea-otter, which has only four in the lower jaw. The dog-teeth are long, strong, sharp, and well adapted to tear the flesh of a victim ; they con- stitute terrible weapons. There are two of them in each jaw, placed on each side of the incisors. Lastly come the molars, which vary very much both in number and form, according to the kind of food eaten ; they are divided into front-molars, flesh- teeth, and tubercular or bach-molars. The front-molars are usually pointed, and increase in size from the first to the last ; their number is one at least, and four at most. These are followed by a tooth with a sharp- edged crown, the largest in the whole system, known under the name of the flesh- tooth. The last, or tubercular OEDEE OE CAENIYOEA. 323 molars, are thus called on account of their large and flattened crown, sometimes being entirely wanting in the lower jaw, where they are always fewer than in the upper jaw. The flesh-teeth and tubercular teeth differ, not only in their structure, hut also in the way in which they meet in the act of mastication, and by the special modifications which they com- municate to the food. The flesh -teeth are alternate in their action ; that is, they slip one over the other, something like the blades of a pair of scissors ; they are, therefore, eminently fitted to cut and divide flesh. The tubercular molars, on the contrary, being exactly opposite to each other, and fitting closely, crown to crown, are very well adapted to grind and triturate vegetable matters. From what has been already said, we may conclude that an animal will he carnivorous in his nature in proportion as the flesh- teeth are more, and the tubercular less developed ; and that, on the contrary, he will he omnivorous, that is, eating both flesh and vegetables, when these conditions are reversed. We may, therefore say, with Isidore Geofiroy Sainte-Hilaire, “ that the exact extent to which an animal is carnivorous, is defined with an almost mathematical accuracy by the modifications of its dental system, and especially of the flesh-teeth.” The Carnivorous Mammals, which are generally very agile in their habits, are handsome and perfect in organisation. Their limbs are well-proportioned, and their toes, which are entirely separated from each other, are terminated by stout and strong claws, more or less sharp according to their habits of life ; these, with their teeth, constitute their means of attack and defence. In all the members of the Feline tribe, — the Car- nivora par excellence , — the claws are retractile, that is, they have the power of withdrawing them into the interior of the paw at the will of the animal. This faculty is owing to the peculiar arrangement of the claws, and the action of a special muscle. The object of this ingenious contrivance is to keep the claws thoroughly sharp and pointed, by protecting them from all the causes which would wear them away, arising from walking and rubbing on the ground. The Carnivora vary very much in their mode of placing their feet on the ground. Some, such as Bears, Badgers, &c., tread y 2 324 MAMMALIA. upon the whole surface of the foot, and are remarkable for their thick- set forms, — these are called Plantigrades ; others, as Cats, Dogs, &c., only touch the ground with their toes, and have a more slender body and a more agile gait, — these are called Digiti- grades. Between these well-marked types are ranked various species, which more or less partake of both characteristics. These characteristics, derived from the mode of walking, are useful in the distinctions of genera, hut they are not of sufficient importance to become the starting-point for any general division of the Carnivora into two great tribes, such as was made by naturalists at the commencement of the present century. The senses of the Carnivora are very highly developed, hut the characteristics of all are not alike. Hearing and sight attain their maximum in the kinds that feed chiefly on flesh ; whilst a fine perception in smell and taste is the attribute of those ; whose food is more or less of a vegetable nature. Most of the Feline or Cat tribe have their eyes organised for nocturnal vision. The Carnivora are superior in intelligence to all the Orders of ' animals which we have previously noticed. Their brain is volu- minous, and always presents circumvolutions in its texture. These animals are also highly endowed by nature in respect of their covering. A great number of them furnish furs which are j much in request, either for the brilliancy of their colours or for j their fineness. We may mention, particularly, the skins of the ! Marten, the Sable, the Ermine, the Fox, the Lion, Tiger and Panther, the Bear, and generally all the coats of the Feline tribe. ; This Order is spread in considerable numbers over the whole surface of the globe, except in Australia, where, as we have seen, they are represented by the Marsupial Mammals. The most formidable species are those found in the torrid regions of Asia, Africa, and America. The largest species of this order, which is at present an inhabitant of Europe, is the Bear. However, this part of the world has not always been so devoid of wild beasts. Bears much larger than those of the present age used to be common, as well as Hyenas and Panthers. The Carnivora are divided into six great families. (1) The Mustelidce family, the type of which is the Weasel (Mustela) ; (2) the Hycenince , or Hyenas ; (3) the Felince , or Cat tribe ; (4) the OBDER OF CARNIVORA. 325 | Canina , or Dog tribe ; (5) tbe Viverridce (from Viverra , a Civet) ; (6) and tbe Ursidce , or Bear. The Mustela Family. — This family consists in general of animals of small size, with slender bodies, carried very near tbe ground, and instincts of an eminently destructive character. Tbe name of Vermiform , which is given to many of them, such as Otters, Polecats, and Martens, indicates their peculiar confor- mation. They are either digitigrade or plantigrade, but more often the former. They are characterised by the presence of two tubercular teeth in each jaw. Included in this family are the genera Otter, Marten, Glutton, Weasel, Badger, and Patel. The Otter Genus . — Otters are essentially organised for an aquatic life. Their webbed feet, their slender shapes, and their flattened heads, enable them to cleave the water with rapidity; while, on the contrary, they are awkward and slow on land. They frequent the edges of lakes, rivers, and streams, where they either dig out a burrow communicating with the water, or they take up their abode in some natural crevice near the bank of the stream they frequent. As they feed principally on Fish, which they capture with extraordinary adroitness, they cause incalculable havoc in the waters which they frequent ; for they are not satisfied with sufficient food to support life, but kill from the love of carnage. Otters will also eat small Mammals, Molluscs, aquatic Beptiles, and even vegetables. In the early days of spring the female gives birth to three or four little ones, which she tends with the most active solicitude, sacrificing her life, if necessary, in their defence. If deprived of her offspring, it is said that she bemoans their loss with sorrowful cries, sometimes even dying of grief. This animal is naturally sagacious, and can be tamed. The better to accomplish this end, it should be caught young, and care must be taken not to feed it on animal matter, for without this precaution its ferocious nature is apt to break out and cause it to become untractable. When trained, the Otter will use its talents in its master’s behalf, and freely relinquish the prey obtained by its exertions. 326 The skin of the Otter is, and has always been, a fur of great value, and deservedly so, for it is soft, close, and durable. The coat of this animal, like that of the Beaver, and almost all the aquatic Mammals, is composed of two layers — one next the skin, formed of short, fine, and downy hair ; the other, which grows through it, is more glossy, longer, and coarser. The Otter is hunted with ardour, as much to obtain possession of the animal’s fur as to destroy it. The pursuit, without fire-arms, is a difficult one, ORDER OF CAENIYOEA. 327 the paramount object being to drive the animal into some spot where the water is shallow, for alone under such circumstances can it be killed or captured. Otters are found in every part of the world ; but they are most plentiful in Europe and America. The Common Otter measures about two feet and a quarter from the tip of the muzzle to the commencement of the tail, which is from twelve to fifteen inches in length. The usual colour of its coat is brown, more or less dark. In Kamschatka and on the coasts of the North Pacific Ocean there exists a species of Otter ( Enhydra , Fleming) which differs from all other species in the softness and brilliancy of its fur, and its exclusively marine habits ; it is rather more than a yard in length. The male and the female are strongly attached to their offspring, as well as to each other, and this union appears of a durable nature. They are, besides, of so mild a nature that when caught in a trap they oppose scarcely any resistance to their destruction. The skins of Sea- otters are much sought after. In Europe, where they are scarce, their price varies from £32 to £60. The markets of China and Japan are supplied with them from the North Pacific, where they are used for the adornment of the mandarins, and other high functionaries. But however ex- travagant their price may be at the present time, it will certainly increase, as these animals are gradually becoming exterminated before the advance of Man. The Weasel Tribe (. Maries , Cuv. ; Mustela, Linn.) — The Weasels are the smallest, but they are also the most ferocious of all the flesh-eaters, not even excepting the Lion, Tiger, and Panther. They feed entirely on living prey, and seem only to delight in slaughter ; but they seldom attack animals disproportioned to their own size. Bats, Mice, Squirrels, form the chief part of their sustenance, or Birds, which they surprise on their perches at night, for they can climb with great agility. Some of the members of this genus, such as the Marten, the Polecat, and the Weasel, generally live in the vicinity of Man’s habitations. And, availing themselves of the slenderness and flexi- bility of their bodies, make their way through holes and apertures into farm-yards, poultry-houses, and rabbit-hutches, when they put to death all the inhabitants. They appear to possess some insatiable lust for destruction ; for they will slaughter many more victims than are necessary to satisfy their hunger. But it must he remembered that, as the blood and brains of their prey is generally the only portion utilised, the number of victims must necessarily be considerable. Weasels are artful and cunning, and generally succeed in taking their prey by surprise, displaying considerable intelligence on such occasions. They can be tamed, but are almost incapable of affec- tion. Thus they are made the slave of Man, not his friend. We must mention, as a special detail of their organisation, the unpleasant and foetid odour which they possess, especially when irritated. This emanates from a liquid, secreted by two glands placed at the setting on of the tail. The Marten genus is divided into two sections — the Marten proper, and the Polecats. The principal species in the first section are the Common or Pine Marten (. Mustela abietum) , the Sable ( Mustela zibellina ), and the Beech Marten (. Mustela martes). The Common Marten, which is essentially nocturnal in its habits, is about twenty inches long; it is a native of the wildest forests in the North of Europe and America. Birds of all kinds, Hares, Babbits, Squirrels, Dormice, Wood-mice, and, exceptionally, Serpents and Lizards, fall a prey under the murderous fangs of this destructive creature. It also has the reputation of being partial to honey. Their place of abode is made in the middle of thickets, or in the hollows of trees. When the female is on the point of giving birth to her young, she looks out for a Squirrel's nest, and having surprised and devoured the proprietor, instals herself therein. The fur of the Common Marten is valuable, but it does not bear comparison with that of some of the other species of which we are about to speak. The Sable (. Mustela zibellina) is furnished with a fine and soft coat. In summer its neck is greyish, but the rest of its body is of a rich fawn-colour. This little animal, eagerly sought after on account of its fur, has its habitat in the northern regions of Siberia and European Bussia. The Turks, Bussians, and Chinese are the principal purchasers of their skins, and distribute them in trade far and wide, through Europe and Asia. The winter coat OEDEE OE GAENIYOEA. 329 of the Sable is almost black, and very close, and is much more valued than when tbe animal is in summer garb. The Russian exiles in Siberia are employed to hunt the Sable, and when in quest of this animal they are exposed to the perils of famine, climate, and wild beasts. How great must be the number of these unhappy men who perish from cold and hunger in this avocation, for the temperature there is sometimes as low as 30° below zero ! How many also are torn to pieces by the teeth of the ferocious Bear and the grizzly Wolf! The heart cannot fail to be affected at the thought of so much suffering, Kg. 128. — Beech or Stone Marten (Maries fagorum , Bay). undergone for no purpose but that of gratifying the vain luxury of a few privileged individuals of the higher classes. The Beech, or Stone Marten (. M. -martes ), Fig. 128, is a native of the whole of Europe, and a part of Western Asia. Woods, hedges, vineyards, wherever there is sufficient shelter for conceal- ment, more especially if possessed of facilities for making sudden forays, come alike acceptable to it for a residence. It also will take up its abode near the habitation of Man, destroying with unrelenting fury the small domestic farm animals. It will even invade the dovecots; but the barns and hay-lofts are its favourite places of retreat, and these are usually selected by the female for a residence when giving birth to her young. It can be comparatively tamed, and, when in captivity, will eat anything except vegetables. 330 MAMMALIA. Boitard relates a curious fact about a peasant, who managed to feed bis family at tbe expense of bis neighbour, by tbe united agency of a Marten and a Dog, both of which, however, must have been wonderfully trained to attain the desired result. The said peasant was in the habit of prowling about the farms adjacent, followed by his Dog and carrying his Marten in his pocket. Whenever he noticed a Fowl distant from the home- stead to which it belonged, he let loose the Marten, which killed it instantaneously. Of course, the rogue went away at once, assuming an innocent air, whilst the Dog was sent back Fig. 129. — Polecats (M. putorius, Linn.) for the feloniously slain Bird. This plan was ultimately dis- covered, and the ingenious villager was compelled to discontinue profiting by the natural habits of his confederates. Among the Polecat section may be classed the Common Pole- cat (Mustela putorius) , the Yison or Minx (Mustela lutreola , Pall.), the Ermine (. Mustela erminea , Linn.), the Ferret (. Mustela furo , Linn.), and the Weasel (Mustela vulgaris , Linn.) The Common, or Fetid Polecat (Fig. 129), owes its latter name to the disagreeable smell which it emits when irritated. This odour is absolutely insupportable, and alike hateful to all animals. OEDEE OF CAENIVOEA. 331 Similar to the Marten, it frequents inhabited localities, and perpetrates the same outrages. After the pairing season, which takes place in spring, the male retires into the woods and subsists on the resources which they provide. If favoured by such circum- stances as enable it to establish itself in a rabbit-warren, it makes sad havoc among the legitimate residents. The Polecat is found all over Europe. rig. 130. — Ermines {M. erminea , Linn.) The Yison, or Minx (if. vison , Gmelin), is a North American representative of this animal ; but its fur is of much more value. The Ermine (Fig. 130) is, like the Sable, a native of the more northerly regions of the globe — Sweden, Norway, Russia, Siberia, but Arctic America is where it most abounds. Those who hunt the Sable generally combine with it the pursuit of the Ermine. The prime skins of these animals fetch an exceed- ingly high price, and a very important trade in them is carried on. The judges and other high officials consume a large quantity for their robes. Our ladies, who love to deck their delicate persons with this beautiful fur, also show a marked 332 preference for it. In summer, the Ermine is of a beautiful brown colour above and white below, while the tail is tipped with black. In winter its whole coat becomes a brilliant white, with sometimes a slightly yellow tinge, the tip of the tail remaining black ; this is the season in which their fur is sought. This animal is not more than ten inches long, not including the tail. There is nothing peculiar in its habits which requires mentioning. The Ferret (Fig. 131), which some authors have regarded as a variety of the Polecat, has a yellowish- white coat and pink eyes. It was brought to us from Spain, which originally obtained it Vig. 131. — Ferret ( M.furo , Linn.) from the coast of Africa. It cannot live in a state of freedom ' either in France or England, on account of the rigour of our ! climate. A cross between the Ferret and Polecat produces a hardy animal, which is a great favourite with those that employ them. Man has availed himself of the natural instinct possessed by the Ferret to prey upon Rabbits, and trains it to assist him in capturing the latter animal. The mode of proceeding is much as follows : — When a rabbit-burrow is to be ferreted, the Ferret is introduced into one of the holes. It is not long before the Rabbits become aware of the intrusion of their deadly enemy. Mad with fright, they leave their haunts ; but the unfortunate ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 333 creatures only avoid Scylla to fall into Charybdis ; for at the outlet of the burrow a net awaits them, into which they plunge headlong, or are shot by the gun of the sportsman. The Ferret, however, should always be muzzled ; but for this precaution, it would seize the Rabbits, and, gorging itself with blood, remain in a state of insensibility, which sometimes lasts several days. It is then almost impossible to induce the Ferret to leave the burrow, except by filling every aperture of it with smoke, and even this method will not always succeed. Apart from this service, the Ferret is of no use ; it mani- fests no affection for its master, not even appearing to recognise him. The Weasel is the smallest of all the Carnivora, and does not measure more than six inches in length. It is found all over the temperate part of Europe, frequenting the environs of country habitations. Its boldness and courage are extraordinary ; it will seize animals much larger than itself, even those which are formidable, such as the Norway Rat. According to Dr. Jonathan Franklin, a Weasel has been seen to attack an Eagle, and after allowing itself to be carried high into the air, it succeeded, after a prolonged contest, in biting through the throat of the bird of prey, when both fell to the ground, the latter in the final agony of life, the Weasel uninjured. Of all the Mustelidce , the Weasel is the one most easily tamed, and shows the greatest affection for its master. The Glutton ( Gulo ) Genus. — With the Glutton we commence a series of animals of the Mustela Order, the mode of walking of which is more or less plantigrade, and their shapes more massive than those of the preceding. This animal is the biggest and the strongest of the family. It has a large head ; the body somewhat more raised from the ground ; a tail of medium length, and pretty well furnished with hair; the claws sharp and pointed. It derives its name from its voracity, which is said to be remarkable. The Wolverine, or Glutton (Gulo luscus ), is peculiar to the Arctic regions, both of the Old and New Worlds. The manner it obtains its food is as follows : — Climbing into a tree, it remains concealed till some prey passes beneath, when, springing down on to its back, it clings there, ultimately tearing out the victim’s 334 throat with its sharp teeth. In vain does the animal make most desperate efforts to get rid of its ferocious assailant ; nothing hut the chance intervention of Man could then save it. The Glutton fears not to attack some of the large Ruminants, such as the Reindeer and Elk, and, it is said, seldom unsuc- cessfully. Buffon was in possession of a living specimen of this animal, which captivity had much subdued. It ate very largely, and with such greediness that it was several times nearly choking. It could devour more than four pounds of meat at a single meal. The Grison, a native of South America, also deserves attention. Fig. 132.— Wolverine, or Glutton (Vrsus gulo , Pallas and Gmelinj. Its proclivities are similar to those of the Glutton. This is the Gulo vittatus of Desmarest. The Skunks (Mephitis, Cuv.) — In their size and general shape the Skunks approach the larger species of Marten ; hut they differ much from them in their dental system, being organised for an omnivorous system of food. Their coat is very thick, silky, and varied with black and white in colour ; the tail is bushy, and capable of being raised over the back like a plume. These animals inhabit the two Americas, from Hudson’s Bay to Cape Horn, and are remarkable for the horrible stench which they diffuse around them when provoked. This liquid, the effluvium of which no living creature can endure, is their weapon of defence, and so powerful is it that clothing once touched by it is rendered unwearable. OEDEE OF CABNIYOEA. 335 Kalm, in his Voyage dans V Amerique Septentrionale, thus speaks of this animal : — “ In 1749, one of these creatures came near the farm where I was staying ; it was during the night, and in winter-time, but the dogs woke up and pursued it. In a moment it diffused around so foetid a stench that, although I was in bed, I thought I should be suffocated, even the cows bellowed, this smell was so disagreeable. Towards the end of the same year, a Skunk crept into our cellar ; a female, who perceived it at night from the glittering of its eyes, killed it ; and, in an instant, the cellar was filled with such an odour, that not only was the woman ill from its effects for several days, hut the bread, the meat, and other provisions which were kept in the cellar were so tainted that they could not be used, and it was necessary to throw them all away to render the place fit for use.” The Badgers (. Meles , Cuv.) — The Badger is a thick-set animal, standing low on its legs, about the size of our Common Fox, and, except in regard to bulk, much resembling the Bear in its general appearance. It has an elongated muzzle, very sensitive at the tip, strong jaws, and sharp-pointed teeth ; its fore-feet are armed with stout claws, well adapted for digging. Its hair is long, and, contrary to what is observed in other Mammals, it is of a lighter shade on the upper part of the body than on the belly and legs ; its tail is short and hairy. It secretes a viscous and disagreeable- smelling humour in a gland placed near its tail. Its gait in walking is heavy and awkward. The Badger (Fig. 133) is common in the temperate parts of Europe and Asia and North America ; it is met with frequently in France. It lives a solitary life in the most deserted neigh- bourhoods, where it digs out a burrow with several outlets, the various “ runs ” intersecting one another, and sometimes attaining a considerable length. It is very shy, and nocturnal in its habits. It feeds on small animals of all kinds, Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Insects ; also roots, fruit, and honey. It may, therefore, be called omnivorous in its nature. It can endure very long absti- nence; for it has been known to remain entirely without food for forty-eight days, without showing indications of want at the expiration of that time ; and in periods of famine the animal, it is said, sustains itself by licking the gland which is placed 336 MAMMALIA. near the root of its tail. Being extremely cunning, it manifests much sagacity in avoiding traps ; hut it is courageous, and will defend itself stoutly when attacked. When Dogs are pur- suing it, its first effort is to get to its burrow, where it would probably be safe ; but if the place of refuge be at a distance, the Badger will fight to the death. In such cases, the animal throws itself on its back, and seldom yields up life without inflicting severe wounds on its enemies. But if, on the con- trary, the Badger reaches its hole, it becomes a difficult matter to dig it out, as it is often necessary to break through into the Fig. 133.— Common Badger ( Meles vulgaris, Dumarest). runs of the burrow by means of a pickaxe ; and these runs go ! down so deep, and occupy so much space, that whole days have been consumed before the animal could be secured. When caught young, the Badger may be easily tamed, and becomes almost as familiar as a Dog. The great variety of food which it thrives upon renders it easy to keep. Its skin is used by harness-makers, its hair serves for the manufacture of shaving- ji brushes, and its flesh is said to be delicate. In India, the Badger is represented by Meles cottaris, frequently 1 called Bear Pig ; and in North America, by Meles lobradoria , the form and habits of the latter have been admirably described by Sir John Bichardson in his Fauna Boreali Americana. ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 337 The Ratels (. Mettivora capensis, F. Cuvier) . — The Ratel bears much resemblance to the Badger ; it has the same thick-set shape, and awkward gait ; a similar arrangement in the colouring of the coat, and instinct for digging ; but its muzzle is shorter in proportion, while its size is greater, for it measures about a yard in length. It is very fond of honey, and employs the greater part of its time in seeking this favourite diet. Its skin, which is covered with thick and coarse hair, is thus defended against the sting of insects. It is found in several parts of Africa, especially at the Cape of Good Hope. The Hyena Family. — In this family are classed certain animals of considerable size and highly Carnivorous tastes, which are digitigrade in their tread ; these are the Hyenas proper, and the Proteles, or Aard Wolves. The Hyena Genus. — The chief characteristics of the animals of this genus are — stout and strong teeth, better fitted for grinding than cutting ; very powerful jaws, which are able to lift easily a prey of enormous weight; head large, and terminated by a blunt muzzle ; repulsive scowling visage ; tongue rough, like that of the Cat tribe; ears large, and almost bare; coat rather thick, and increasing to a kind of flowing mane along the ridge of the spine ; tail moderately long and hairy ; hind quarters lower than the fore, causing an obliquity and shambling in their gait ; feet tetradactylous ; claws short and stout, more useful for digging than tearing a prey. The Hyena is met with in all parts of Africa, and in a large portion of Asia. It dwells in caverns, from which it emerges at evening to seek its food. Hyenas are not, however, the ferocious beasts which the popular imagination delights to picture them. They never attack Man, except in cases of absolute necessity. In fact, they prefer animal matter in a state of putrefaction. They frequent burying- grounds, where they devour the dead. They will even enter villages to consume animal remains thrown away as unfit for the table, whether flesh or bones, for their voracity is only equalled by their powers of digestion. These unclean habits, and the repeated violations of graves, have caused the Hyena to be regarded as an object of aversion z 338 MAMMALIA. and disgust. We should, however, he just, and not refuse to recognise the services which are rendered by them. The Hyena is, among Quadrupeds, what the Vulture is among Birds. They perform very much the same functions, hut much more completely, as they consume even the skeletons of the carcasses on which they feed. In those cities and villages of Africa in which the care of the public ways is left to chance, the Hyenas are in the habit of removing all the offal which would otherwise decay, the decomposition of which, accelerated by a burning sun, would engender a pestilential miasma, and endanger the public health. Looked at in this point of view, the utility of this animal cannot be disputed. Unfortunately, in those localities where Hyenas most abound, they can seldom find a sufficient quantity of putrefied matter to satisfy their appetites, and thus are frequently compelled to appropriate living prey. Travellers relate that at night they break down the barricades which the inhabitants of African villages erect round their houses, to get at the cattle. In the absence of animal food they can subsist upon roots and vegetables. The two best known species of this family are the Striped Hyena [Hycena striata) and the Spotted Hyena (Hycena maculata). The Striped Hyena (Fig. 134) owes its name to the black lines which run transversely across its yellowish- grey coat. It is about the size of a large Dog, and is a native of Barbary, Egypt, Abyssinia, Arabia, Syria, and Persia. The Spotted Hyena is to be met with in Barbary, and is also found in Caffraria, and generally throughout the whole of South Africa. This species may be very easily tamed. Some of the African colonists rear it like a Dog, and exact from it similar services. It is by kind treatment alone its attachment is gained ; ill usage would render it dangerous. The Aard Wolf (Proteles, Is. Geof.) — This genus differs so little from the Hyenas, that it is quite excusable for the two to be confounded. But, independent of the fact that the former has five toes on the front feet, whilst Hyenas have only four, the genus Proteles must be classed by itself on account of its dental system, which presents a type which is entirely exceptional throughout the whole Carnivorous Order. This animal has but four pairs of molars in each jaw, very wide apart, which are reduced to Fig. 134. — Hyenas in a Grave-yard. 340 MAMMALIA. mere rudiments. The conclusion to be drawn from this fact is, that these animals do not possess a power of mastication suit- able for feeding on tough and muscular flesh, and that therefore something more easy of mastication, owing to the commencement of decomposition, is necessary for their nutriment. Observation has confirmed these conjectures. The Aard Wolf lives princi- pally on the flesh of very young or immature Ruminants. It, however, will occasionally attack adult Sheep, or equally defence- less animals. They also are frequenters of grave-yards. There is not much known about the habits of this animal. It [ has, however, been ascertained that it digs burrows, in which it retires during daylight. It is a native of Southern Africa, the Mozambique Coast, Nubia, and Abyssinia. The Felim:. — The Feline or Cat tribe form a strongly marked and easily characterised family. They have a round head ; jaws short, and consequently very powerful, armed with sharp teeth ; the tongue bristling with horny papillce, which produce the same sensation as a rasp when drawn across the bare skin, wounding by mere licking ; they possess five toes on the front and four on the hind feet ; claws sharp-cutting, pointed, and retractile, except in the Hunting Leopard ; eyes yellow, and organised for nocturnal vision ; the i ears well open, but slightly developed. If, to these various features, we add a digiti grade tread, an elegant shape, and an | astonishing degree of suppleness and activity enabling them to spring immense distances, we shall be able to form some general idea of these formidable quadrupeds. And, in fact, most formidable they are ! for amongst them are found the Lion, Tiger, Panther, &c., — the largest, the best armed, j and the most sanguinary of the Carnivorous Order. They feed, I except in rare cases, on none but living victims, the palpitating flesh of which they rend to pieces with savage energy. Although the various species differ much in size, they are all alike in their mode of attacking, their method of contending with, and ulti- mately killing, their victims. As a rule, they take them by sur- prise ; for they are not possessed of that courage which people are pleased to attribute to them. Crouched in some hidden retreat, silently and patiently they await their prey ; and as soon as within ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 341 reach, they spring upon it from behind, without allowing time for escape or defence. In order to avoid dangerous opposition, they seldom attack any but the most inoffensive animals. Hunger alone induces them to dart upon the first creature they come in contact with ; but, in this case, if they encounter resistance, their fury is commensurate. The Felidae family includes three genera — the Cat tribe, the Lynx, and the Hunting Leopard. The Cat genus. — This genus includes those Carnivora which have for their type the Domestic Cat. These are, in the Old World, the Lion, Tiger, Panther, Leopard, Ounce, Serval, Wild and Domestic Cats ; in the New World, the Jaguar, Puma, and Ocelot. The Lion ( Fells leo). — If the impression made by the first sight of this animal be retained, it must be confessed that the Lion is no usurper of the title “ King of the Beasts,” which has been awarded him from the most ancient times. He carries his head high, and walks with a slowness which may well pass for gravity ; his visage is calm and dignified, and announces a full consciousness of his strength. The bushy and magnificent mane which overshadows his head and neck is an addition which confers on his remarkable ensemble an air of grandeur which commands awe. Some adult Lions have attained a length of nearly ten feet, from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the tail ; but, generally speaking, they do not exceed six to seven feet. With the exception of the mane and a tuft of hair at the end of the tail, the coat is entirely smooth, and of a nearly uniform tawny colour. The female is distinguished by the absence of any mane, and by a smaller head ; she is generally, in proportion, about one-fourth less than the male. Buffon has drawn a magnificent portrait of the Lion, which will ever remain one of the most beautiful passages in French literature. He attributes to it the good qualities of courage, magnanimity, generosity, nobility of character, gratitude for kindness, and sensibility. Unfortunately, this elaborate panegyric is fated to give way before observation. Before proceeding any further, there is one remark which it is necessary to make, which is, that Lions differ much in size, Fig'. 135. — African Lion (Leo afncanns, Swains) ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 343 nature, and habits,, according to the country which they inhabit. The evidence of various travellers puts it beyond all doubt that the Lion of South Africa differs essentially from the Lion of Barbary. This remark will be sufficient to explain the numerous con- tradictions which, even up to the present day, have thrown some obscurity round the various accounts of this animal, if looked upon as a single type. These contradictions, however, exist only in appearance, because they merely depend on the confusion in the varieties of the leonine species, and spontaneously fall to the ground as soon as this confusion ceases. There are, nevertheless, certain characteristics which are possessed in common by all the Lions, viz., a general physiognomy. As a rule, the Lion does not hunt during the day ; not that his eyes are unfitted for diurnal vision, but indolence and prudence keep him at home till evening. When the first shadows of twilight appear, he enters upon his campaign. If there is a pool in the vicinity of his haunt, he places himself in ambush on the edge of it, with the hope of securing a victim among the Antelopes, Gazelles, Giraffes, Zebras, Buffaloes, &c., which are led thither to slake their thirst. These animals, well aware of this habit of their enemy,, will not approach a pond without extreme caution. If one, however, places itself within reach of their terrible foe, its fate is generally sealed. One enormous bound enables the Lion to spring on its back, and one blow with his paw breaks its back. If the Lion misses his aim, he does not endeavour to continue a useless pursuit, well knowing that he cannot compete in speed with the chil- dren of the plains. He therefore skulks back into his hiding- place, to lie in ambush until some more fortunate chance presents itself, or complete nightfall shuts out all hope of success. The Lion, however, is not disposed to remain long with an empty stomach. Then it is that he approaches Man’s habitations, with the hope of surprising the domestic animals. Fences ten feet in height form no obstacle to him, for he will bound over such with ease, when, falling into the midst of the herd, he seizes the nearest. The amount of strength which he manifests under circum- stances similar to these is really extraordinary. A Lion has been 344 MAMMALIA. known, at the Cape of Good Hope, to carry off a Heifer as a Cat would a Mouse, and, with the burden, leap a wide ditch. It is almost impossible to conceive the muscular force necessary to jump a fence several feet high when carrying a load of several hundredweight. The audacity of the Lion increases in proportion to his requirement. When he has exhausted all means of procuring subsistence, and when he can no longer put off the cravings of hunger, he sets no limit to his aggressions, and will brave every danger rather than perish by famine. In open day he i will then proceed to where herds of oxen and sheep pasture, entirely disregarding shepherds and Dogs. At such times he has been known to carry his rashness so far as to attack a drove of Buffaloes — an action which is all the bolder as a single one, unless it is taken by surprise, is well able to defend itself. “ I have it on good authority,” says Sparrmann, “ that a Lion | was thrown down, wounded, and trampled under foot so seriously as to cause death by a herd of cattle he had ventured to attack in open day.” Livingstone, too, the celebrated English traveller, was witness to a herd of Buffaloes defending themselves against several Lions. The bulls stood in front, the females and young ones keeping behind them. When nearly famished, the Lion will make shift with carrion, although it may be in a very decomposed state ; moreover, he is in the habit of returning the next day to consume the remains of his yesterday’s feast — a thing which is not done by others of the Feline tribe. One feature, which seems peculiar to the nature of South African Lions, is, that they will combine to hunt those animals which singly they are unable to encounter with certainty of success. Delegorgue relates that, in winter, twenty or thirty Lions have been seen to assemble during the day-time, and drive their game into narrow passes, in which some of their confreres were posted. These are, he says, regular battues , conducted in due order, but without noise ; for the smell of the Lion is quite sufficient to drive before it the herbivorous animals. The Bhinoceros is sometimes destroyed in this way by associations of Lions. OBDER OF CARNIVORA. 345 There is one important fact which has several times been observed. When the Lion is hungry or irritated, he flogs his sides with his tail and shakes his mane. If, therefore, a traveller finds himself unexpectedly in the presence of a Lion, he may know the brute’s intentions, and can take precautions accordingly. If the tail does not move, the animal may be passed without fear ; not only will he not spring upon you, hut throwing a stone at him will suffice to drive him away. Under the reverse circumstances, no time must he lost in seeking a place of refuge, unless you are in a position to commence a contest with your arms, and then the more prompt and determined your action, the more successful will be the issue. Because the Lion seldom attacks any living creature when his appetite is satisfied, and because he is content with one victim at a time, some people have fancied that he is magnanimous. We might as well praise the abstemiousness of a man who has well fed. But few animals kill for the mere pleasure of killing. If some of the Carnivora appear to contradict this, it may be because we are unable to appreciate their motives ; with the progress of knowledge, their true characters may in future be better understood. It is also at present impossible for us to say that the Lion is less irritable than other quadrupeds. The “ King of Beasts,” moreover, does not fear Man ; nevertheless, he treats him with respect, only attacking him in a case of urgent necessity, such as suffering from long abstinence, without a prospect of food. Numerous testimonies vouch for the correct- ness of this statement. “We arrived one day,” says Delegorgue, “where the Caffirs and their families, although deprived of firearms, traversed the localities where these animals roam, the presence of Lions being to them no cause for alarm. And there is a reason for this : either from motives of cunning, or through timidity, this terrible animal, when surprised, and hunger does not excite him, takes to flight at the sight of a Man or Child, and even retires when the wind carries the sound of human voices to him. These habits, which appear to be determined by a feeling of caution, are well known to the experienced.” One day Sparrmann and his companions saw before them, at two or three hundred paces distant, two large Lions, which fled as 346 MAMMALIA. soon as they perceived the hunters. The latter pursued them on horseback, shouting loudly ; but the Lions doubled their pace, and plunged into a wood, where they disappeared. Mr. Moffat speaks of having seen bushmen compel the Lion to forsake his prey by only shouting and making a great noise. A wealthy farmer was walking over his land, armed with his gun. Suddenly he saw a Lion. Making certain of killing it, he aimed. The gun, however, hung fire ; the man, alarmed, turned to the right about and scampered off with all his might, pursued by the Lion. A little mound of stones presented itself, and on this he jumped, wheeling round to face the brute, and I threatening it with the but-end of his gun. In turn, the animal halted, and withdrew some paces, looking very composed, but the i farmer did not venture to descend. At last, after nearly half an hour had passed, it slunk slowly away, as if it had been stealing ; and as soon as it got a short distance off, took to rapid flight. This anecdote is told by Sparrmann. Another proof of the fear that seizes the Lion at the sight of Man, is the manner in which it treats him when in its power, j While it kills an inferior animal it makes its prey without delay, it does not immediately take the life of a human being whom it has seized. Evidently it acts in this manner because ; it still fears him, even when he is lying on the earth powerless — instinctive fear, and not generosity, arrests its vengeance. We have many examples to bear out this statement. A hunter fires at a Lion and misses, or but slightly wounds it. The animal precipitates itself upon him, strikes him to the ground with a stroke of its paw, and there respectfully keeps him in this terrible restraint, without completing the work of destruction. Thus it often happens that its attention is distracted by the attack of I another hunter, when it abandons its victim. In this way Livingstone one day escaped certain death. A Lion held him prostrate on the ground in his claws, when a shot from one of his companions fortunately attracted the animal’s | attention. Immediately leaving the Doctor, the terrible beast |. threw itself on its new adversary, who in turn escaped. It appears, from the statements of some travellers, that when the Lion has fed several times on human flesh, it afterwards prefers this food. It thus becomes a Man-eater, as the Arabs j OEDEE OF CAENIYOEA. 347 are pleased to say ; and instead of flying from the presence of Man, it then seeks him with persistence. Some have imagined that the Lion recognises the superiority of the white Man over the black, and knowing that it has more to fear from the former than the latter, it prefers attacking the negro. It is well known in South Africa, that the natives are much more exposed to their assaults than the colonists. Self-respect is one of the characteristic traits of the Lion ; it loves to admire itself. “ In daylight,” says Livingstone, “ the Lion will halt for one or Pig. 136. — Dr. Livingstone. two seconds to stare at any one it meets ; it turns slowly round ; moves off some steps, always leisurely, looking hack over its shoulder ; then it begins to trot, and finally bounds off like a Hare as soon as it supposes it is no longer seen.”* Its distrust is excessive. When its suspicions are aroused, it is careful how it makes an attack. And so it frequently happens * Explorations in Southern Africa. 348 MAMMALIA. that, against its own inclinations, it leaves a prey that it deems too easily obtained, suspecting it to be a bait. Sometimes this con- jecture proves false, and the Man or animal whose unlucky star has placed him or it without defence in the path of the Lion, thus miraculously escapes its formidable jaws. The following is an example : — A colonist at the Cape of Good Hope suddenly came upon a Lion, and was so frightened at its appearance that he fell down from fear. Surprised at such a result, the Lion carefully inspected the whole vicinity without seeing any one. Still fearing some ambush, it quietly retired, without touching the Man, whom fear had rendered incapable of action. The roaring of the Lion has always been admired. When heard within a distance of a mile or two during the silence of the night, it awes all living creatures. When this great voice echoes over the plain, the cattle tremble in the farms, and follow with anxiety its various modulations in order to inform themselves of the direction in which the enemy is approaching. If the Lion comes to prowl around the enclosure in which they are sheltered, they exhibit symptoms of the most intense fear. Their sense of smell alone suffices to indicate, even at a considerable distance, the dreaded presence. Livingstone makes some remarks on the voice of the king of beasts, which are singularly opposed to the opinions of the majority of authors who have spoken of that animal. He asserts that the roaring of the Lion resembles, and may be mistaken for, the cry of the Ostrich. The voice of the Ostrich, he says, is as loud as that of the Lion, and it has never frightened any- body. He declares he has consulted several Europeans on this subject, who were acquainted with both cries, and all replied that there was not the slightest difference. The natives (he further states) are very often deceived, and it is not until after the first notes are uttered, and by paying great attention, it becomes possible to distinguish the voice of the Carnivore from that of the Bird. Livingstone thinks that, in general, the cry of the Ostrich is not so deep as the Lion’s roar ; but, he adds, I have not been able, up to the present time, to distinguish with certainty between them, because they are only heard, the one during the night, and the other during the day. Perhaps the Lion of the Atlas has a OEDEE OE CAENIVOEA. 349 more powerful voice than that of South Africa, which Livingstone alone refers to. If this supposition he correct, it may reconcile all difference of opinions. It is in spring that the Lion seeks a mate, and when an alliance is formed they show themselves most devoted to one another. Until the female has young, the Lioness follows her lord everywhere, and most frequently the male is charged with Fig. 187. — Persian or Arabian Lion, 350 MAMMALIA. providing the common subsistence. It is said that he pushes his gallantry so far as to refuse to eat first, and that he does not approach the prey captured by himself until the Lioness is satisfied ; and, on the other hand, the latter defends him with energetic fury if he be attacked. The Lioness goes with young; about one hundred and fifty days, and brings forth from two to five cubs, which she tends and pro- tects with remarkable solicitude. Her courage in defending them has become proverbial. Evil be to those who attempt to disturb or to deprive her of her cubs ! for they will feel the weight of her wrath, unless they gain shelter or slay the furious mother. As the male has the unnatural habit of devouring his off- spring when they come into the world, the Lioness wanders in search of some inaccessible concealed spot in which to deposit her progeny. She is, moreover, careful to an extreme to make all her tracks in the vicinity most intricate and confused. She suckles her cubs for six months, scarcely ever leaving them except to quench her thirst, or procure nourishment. After weaning them, she takes them out to hunt, when their ravages are of incredible extent ; for they kill not only to feed, but also to learn to strangle and tear their prey. The neigh- bouring population know to their cost what the nature of this education is. This state of things lasts until the cubs are strong enough to find their own subsistence, when they are driven off by their parents. The size of a new-born cub is about that of a half- grown Cat ; at a year old, it is equal in stature to that of a [Newfound- land Hog. They do not walk before they are two months old. The colour of the coat in the young differs from that of the adult animal, in being yellow, and striped with small brown bars, which markings do not completely disappear until maturity of form is reached. The mane begins to grow on the male when he is about three years of age. The average duration of the Lion’s life appears to be from thirty-five to forty years. A fact to be noted in the habits of the Lion, particularly those of North Africa, is that by reason of its carnivorous regime, and the activity of its appetite, it is generally obliged to live a solitary existence, in a locality where it arrogates to itself the ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 351 exclusive ownership. No other animal of the same species is permitted to plant its foot on this reserved domain without having to contend for proprietorship. Travellers have given us descriptions of these terrible contests, which are often termi- nated by the death of the two competitors. Another cause of strife between the males, is the possession of the females in the coupling season. It appears that these dames take a malicious pleasure in exciting the jealousy of their wooers, and that it affords them pleasure to see these fiery champions slay each other for the sake of their good graces. The Lion is most assuredly the king of animals, if we might judge from its strength and power of destruction. We are amazed when we think of the number of cattle slain by a single representative of this species during a lifetime. The spahi, Jules Gerard, surnamed the Lion-killer, and celebrated for his hunting in Algeria, gives an estimate of 6,000 francs as the value of the Horses, Mules, Oxen, Camels, and Sheep that a single Lion carries off annually from the Arabs. In taking the average duration of his life, which, is thirty- five years, each Lion at this rate costs the Arabs 210,000 francs. Jules Gerard adds that from 1856 to 1857 sixty Lions have carried off, in the province of Bone only, ten thousand head of cattle, great and small. The quantity of food that this flesh- eater absorbs at a single repast is truly pro- digious : he has been seen to devour the whole of a Heifer at one meal. From this it can be understood how cordially the Lion is hated by the people of Algeria, whose whole wealth consists in herds and flocks; hatred all the more violent, as the Arabs rarely have the courage to expose their lives in arresting the depredations of their enemy. A great number of artifices are employed to destroy Lions. The negroes of the Soudan, as well as the Hottentots, dig a deep pit in the path frequented by the Lion they are desirous of killing. This pit is perfectly concealed by a roofing of branches covered with turf, which gives way on the slightest pressure. On this deceitful ground they fix some kind of bait, either a living Lamb, or a piece of freshly- killed Ox or Horse. The Lion arrives, perceives the bait, springs at it, and falls into the trap. His enemies then approach and worry the victim, now power] ess to do 352 MAMMALIA. injury, and shoot him down at their leisure from the border of the pit, at the bottom of which he crouches in mournful silence, and with a calmness full of dignity. The Arabs often excavate this cavity in the interior of the douar (a collection of tents) ; the locality allows them to dispense with the ingenious contrivance for concealment, and still further assures the success of the artifice. When the nocturnal marauder clears the hedge that surrounds the village, he tumbles into this gaping hole, to remain a prisoner till his captives choose ! to slay him. His imprisonment is announced to the neighbour- ing villages with frantic cheers and rejoicings of every descrip- | tion. Men, women, and children all rush to contemplate the | unfortunate brute, and shower upon it derisive epithets, and volleys of stones. Destroying it by concealment in underground places, or on a tree, is tolerably free from danger. In the first method, three or j1 or four men hide themselves in a hole about three feet deep on the margin of a path frequented by their prey. The roof is i: covered with heavy stones and earth ; narrow openings are made in the sides, in order to see what may be passing without, and on which to rest their fire-arms ; lastly, a lure is placed in front of this sanctuary to induce the Lion to stop, which if he does a volley of bullets is his welcome. It is rare that he falls dead immediately, but springs towards the ambush, hoping to find the , foe ; but the construction is too strong to permit him to enter, and he staggers off, probably to die in his den. At other times, the hunters conceal themselves in a tree, to I which they even add more branches to make a more secure ; hiding-place. From this post they operate in precisely the same manner as in the subterranean plan. These two methods are those principally in vogue among the Arabs. But the caution of the Lion often defeats these artifices ; so. that he can only be destroyed by attacking him when opportunity j offers. A number of horsemen, accompanied by vigorous Dogs, meet together and scour the woods to which he resorts, and by different means force him out on the plain. If the animal shows fight under these conditions he is lost. The hunters successively ply him with bullets, or fly at speed out of his reach; when, ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 353 having re-loaded their weapons, they return to the attack, and recommence firing until the foe succumbs. The colonists of South Africa adopt a similar method, and there is no instance on record in which one of them has been killed in this kind of tournament. Not only do they practise it without apprehension, but with pleasure, and they are always ready to avail themselves of an opportunity to enjoy it. This sport, however, does not go on so smoothly with the Arabs, for their arms are inferior to those of the colonists ; and “the Lion is never so terrible as when he is dangerously wounded and on the point of death. Every one who falls beneath his claws at such a time is truly in a perilous position. There is still another method of chasing the Lion, which demands coolness, intrepidity, and, above all, remarkably good eyesight ; this is the chasse a Vciffut , so well explained and illus- trated by Jules Gerard and Chassaing. By this mode it is necessary to go alone to the places frequented by the game. By observation the favourite haunt is chosen, the animal’s precise movements are studied and watched, so that the hunter becomes thoroughly acquainted with the marauder’s habits. At last, on some fine night, it is waited for in the most favourable situation for attack ; then the sportsman must conquer or die. By this method Chassaing obtained surprising results : for he killed fourteen Lions in ninety- six hours, four of which fell in a single night ! The exploits of Jules Gerard, surnamed the “ Lion-killer,” have been admired by all the world. His spirit-stirring ad- ventures have been widely read and enjoyed. We will limit ourselves, in giving an idea of them, by selecting what appears to us the most interesting. In Chapter XVI. of his work entitled Le Tueur de Lions , he thus relates what follows : — “ Scarcely had I arrived at Guelma, when I received new complaints, due to the presence of a large tawny Lion, which j had established itself since my departure among my friends the Makouna. “ I still suffered from fever, but I knew how healthy are the air and the water of these mountains, so started off. “ Of all the people in the country, a man named Lakdar had A A 354 MAMMALIA. suffered tlie most, lie alone had lost the large number of twenty- nine Oxen, forty-five Sheep, and several Mules and Mares. It is necessary, however, to mention that this unfortunate individual had fixed his abode in the least inhabited part of the district, and which really appeared more made for Lions than men. If we figure to ourselves a corner of arable ground on the slope of the most thickly wooded and rugged mountain, where the sun never penetrated, we have an idea of the locality where Lakdar had taken up his residence. I ought to add, however, that he had before his tent a garden planted with fruit trees, and a spring which yielded delicious water — natural resources that all the gold in the world could not, in an Arab’s estimation, surpass. It was for this reason Lakdar was able to support, with the courage of a stoic, the ravages inflicted on him by the decimator of his herds. “ On my arrival at my host’s, I was greeted as a saviour. I found the douar surrounded by a hedge six feet high, and about four feet thick ; this the Lion, to obtain his supper, jumped over nearly every night. I passed several consecutive evenings watch- ing without seeing the hungry visitor. In the daytime I care- fully examined all the neighbouring haunts, but without success. ‘“You see,’ said Lakdar to me, ‘ it is sufficient for you to appear and the enemy vanishes ; but as soon as you go away, he will return, and then my last Ox, my brother, my wife, even my child, will all be carried off ! ’ “ ‘ You must marry among us, and never more go away,’ chimed in Lakdar’s wife,. ‘We will search out for you the prettiest maids of the mountain — Gazelles in form and Doves in affection ; choose two or three ; the tribe will give you a fine tent, and flocks and herds, and we shall all be happy, for we shall have peace.’ “ This example of the animosity of the Lion against a single douar, or even a single tent, is not rare “ . . . . On the evening of the 26th August, while sitting in the garden observing an old Boar wallowing, Lakdar came and told me that his black Bull had not returned with the herd, and that at day-break he would search for its remains. “ The next morning, on waking up, I found my host near me. His face was overspread with joy. Come,’ he exclaimed, ‘ I have found it ! ’ l OEDEE OF OAENIYOEA. 355 “ After passing through a dense wood for a quarter of an hour, we came to the remains of the Bull. The thighs and breast had been devoured. I then sent Lakdar for a cake and a jar of water, after receiving which I installed myself at the foot of an olive tree about three paces from the carcass. The wood, in the middle of which I found myself, was so dense, that it was impossible to see for more than eighteen or twenty feet around. I had taken the precaution to assure myself, by the spoor, of the direction the Lion had taken when retiring, so as to face that point. Afterwards I relieved myself of my turban, the better to hear the slightest noise. At sunset all the animal life in my vicinity was on the move, so that I was often falsely alarmed, at one time by a Lynx, at another by a Jackal, and sometimes by creatures of less importance. For each alarm I experienced as many fancies ; and I may truly say that, in the space of half an hour, I felt as many as would satisfy the most fastidious adventure-hunter. Towards eight o’clock in the evening, at the moment when the new moon half lighted up the edges of the black scud overhead, I heard a branch snap. This time there could be no mistake ; only the weight of a large animal could make such a noise. Shortly after, a hollow, sup- pressed roar re-echoed through the forest. Then I could dis- tinguish a slow heavy tread. With my rifle to my shoulder, elbow on knee, and finger on trigger, I waited the moment when his head would appear. But I coidd not perceive the foe until he had reached the Bull, on which he began to ply his enormous tongue. I aimed at his forehead, and fired. The Lion fell roaring, then sprang up on his hind legs, as a Horse when rearing. I had also risen, and taking a step to the front fired a second shot at close quarters. This brought him head over heels, as if struck by a thunderbolt. I then withdrew in order to reload ; which having done, and seeing that the animal still moved, I advanced on him, dagger in hand. Certain of the spot where his heart was situated, I raised my hand and struck. But at the same moment the fore- arm of the tawny savage made a backward movement, and the blade of my dagger broke in his side. My presence had renewed his vitality. He raised his enormous head. I retired two paces, and administered a final shot. My first bullet entered about an inch above the left eye, and came out behind the a a 2 356 MAMMALIA. neck, but was inefficient to cause death. While I was examining the wounds, and reflecting on the difficulty of killing a Lion on the spot, I heard a great noise behind me. It was Lakdar who rushed through the wood like a hunted wild Boar. 44 4 It is 1/ he cried, out of breath, and forcing a way through the underwood. 4 I was there all the time, and heard everything. The infidel, the ogre, the scourge, the fiend incarnate is dead, dead ! Here is a happy day ! * exclaimed he, trying to disengage a corner of his burnous from the thorns that held it fast. 44 Then he called with all his might to his brother, his sons, and his wife, as if they were within sound of his voice : 4 Come to me ! bring the dogs ! he is dead ! he is dead ! ’ 44 At last he went to where the Lion lay, saying : 4 Thanks, brother, for that which you have done this day. Henceforth I am yours, body and goods.’ 44 4 Look,’ said I, 4 and assure yourself if that be really your friend.’ 44 He crouched down in silence near the Lion, examined it attentively, and endeavoured to raise its head. 4 4 4 All that you Lave taken from me,’ he said, addressing the carcass, 4 all the evil you have done is as nothing, for now you have found your master, and you are dead ; and I can now strike you with my fist.’ 44 And suiting the action to the word, he struck with no light hand. 44 Soon after, the brother and sons of Lakdar also arrived, attracted by the reports of my arms; and it was not without trouble that I induced them to accompany me to the tent there to wait for daylight. 44 Hext day all the men, women, children, and dogs on the mountain took their way towards the residence of Lakdar. Hot- i withstanding this reinforcement of strength, the density of the jj wood and the weight of the carcass was so great that it was ! impossible to remove it from the place where it fell ; so, ultimately, ,, we were obliged to skin it where it lay. 44 Lakdar asked me as a favour to allow him to accompany me to Guelma, so as to make his entry with me, himself carrying these spolia optima. I consented, and in order to enhance the triumphal rejoicings, he spread the Lion’s skin on the Mule he ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 357 bestrode. It is scarcely necessary to say that the creature charged with such a load cared much less about the honour than its master did, and that more than once my companion was ignominiously and hurriedly dismounted. “ To give an idea of the size of this Lion, I will mention the following fact : — “ General Bedeau, who was passing through Guelma at the time when I arrived, expressed a desire to see its skin. I hastened to select from among the troops one of the strongest men to carry it into the presence of my superior. Scarcely had this load been placed on the spahi’s shoulders than he sank beneath its weight ; and, for want of more suitable means, a stable wheel-barrow ultimately had to be employed for the purpose. “ Lakdar returned to look at it in the evening. Next day he was there again to have a last glance ere it was carried away by the purchaser. “ Comparing this one with the finest Lions I have seen in menageries or in the Jardin des Plants, it was as a Horse to an Ass ”* The celebrated Lion-killer perished in 1866 ; but not beneath the claws of one of the race he had so often caused to bite the dust. He met an accidental and obscure death while crossing a river, during an excursion which had not even Lion-hunting for its object. We will terminate this brief history of the king of animals, by noticing the efforts which have been sometimes made to subdue his carnivorous instincts. A false idea is generally entertained with regard to these great carnivorous animals. It is looked upon as an almost superhuman task to overcome their ferocity, and to tame them. From this supposition arises the admiration of the crowd for those people who enter Lions’ cages. Such exhibitions, however, have nothing astonishing in them when we know that the Lion, far from being incapable of training, readily submits to it. Frequent examples of this have occurred in the various zoological establishments in Europe. * From the great improvements in gunnery, the danger of shooting large game has much decreased : I am assured by Mr. J. D. Dougall, the celebrated rifle manu- facturer, that of late years it is not uncommon to kill a Tiger or Lion at the first fire.— Ed. 358 MAMMALIA. In 1825 there were, in the menagerie in the Tower of London, two young Lions, a male and female ; they had been obtained in India, where they were captured when only a few days old, and a Groat had been employed to suckle them during the early months of their existence. So docile were they, that they were allowed to wander about the courtyard, and visitors caressed and played with them with impunity. At a later period, it was deemed proper to shut them up, to prevent accidents ; hut this more rigorous captivity did not alter the character of the male. With regard to the female, she became intractable when suckling — a circumstance perfectly explained when we know the violent affection this creature displays towards its progeny. In menageries, the keepers who look after these ferocious beasts perform every day as great feats as the professional trainers, ! for they enter the cages, and are received by the occupants with | much affection — a truly curious interchange of greetings between the Man and beast. There is still preserved the remembrance of a deep friendship which arose between two Lions, male and female, brought to the Jardin des Plantes, in 1799, and a man named Felix, the keeper, at that period, of the menagerie. When he became unwell, and it was necessary to replace him, the male Lion persistently refused to have anything to do with the stranger, and would not even allow him to approach the place of confinement. When Felix reappeared, the Lion, accompanied by the Lioness, rushed to meet him. They roared with pleasure while licking his face and hands, and in all their movements demonstrated the greatest joy at seeing him once more. A Lioness has been exhibited in England which would allow her keeper to get upon her hack, and, with a still greater degree : of familiarity, drag her about by the tail, or even place his head between her teeth. The ancients, more adroit or less timid than ourselves, were much better skilled in taming ferocious animals. Hanno of Carthage employed a Lion to carry a portion of his baggage. Mark Antony was often drawn in a chariot to which Lions were yoked. The Indian princes of the last century knew the science of training Tigers and Lions to hunt for them. Even at the present time, the Orientals frequently reduce the Lion to domesticity. OKDER OF CARNIVORA. 359 Thus the famous King of Abyssinia, Theodoras, whose existence was terminated in 1868 in so tragical a manner, had in his palace several Lions, which are intended to figure among the magnificent collection of animals at the Zoological Gardens of London. The above facts are sufficient to prove the power of education on the king of beasts. In Paris and London, also at Naples and Florence, the Lion has bred many times in captivity ; but it is with difficulty such cubs are reared, as they suffer extremely at the period of dentition. If it were not for this, there is no doubt that the Lion could be successfully acclimatised. The few that have lived for a moderate time in our climate have exhibited an exemplary degree of docility ; indeed to such an extent have they submitted them- selves without resistance to Man’s control, that in the opera of Alexander and Darius , which was represented at Co vent Garden Theatre, London, one figured several times. In the Windsor menagerie, in 1824, a very remarkable cross was effected between a Tigress and a Lion. From this union resulted two young, of a very peaceable temper, and dissimilar in appearance from both parents. In former times Lions were numerous even in Europe. Accord- ing to Herodotus, Aristotle, and Pausanias, they were abundant in Macedonia, Thrace, and Thessaly; but for centuries in these countries they have been unknown. Arabia, Syria, and Babylonia used also to contain large numbers. In Arabia and on the con- fines of Persia and India at the present date they are scarce. We may form some idea of their number in ancient times by the quantity absorbed annually in the combats which were so much in favour with the Romans. In a very brief interval, Sylla had slaughtered a hundred Lions, Pompey six hundred, and Csesar four hundred. In fact, in our age the leonine species is rarely met with except in Africa, where every day its numbers are diminishing, and from whence it will soon completely disappear if the present rate of slaughter is continued. Our grand- children probably will know the Lion only from our descriptions. Several varieties of the Lion are distinguished. The most ferocious is the Brown Lion of the Cape. In the same habitat lives another, much less dangerous, the Yellow Cape Lion. After 360 MAMMALIA. these we may enumerate the Lion of Senegal, the Barbary Lion, and the Lion of Persia and Arabia. A traveller has notified the existence, in the north of Arabia, of a variety of the Lion without a mane ; such is also found in Hindostan.* The Tiger ( Tigris regalis). — The Tiger is as high on the limbs as the Lion ; but it is more slender, active, and stealthy, closely resembling, in figure and movements, the domestic Cat, which serves . as the type of the entire genus. Its coat is very handsome, being oLa yellowish fawn colour above and a pure white beneath ; everywhere irregularly striped by brown transverse bands. Its tail, which is very long, is ringed with black, and contributes not a little to its beauty. It has also white around the eyes, on the jaws, and on the back of each ear. The Tiger is peculiar to Asia. It inhabits Java, Sumatra, a great part of Hindostan, China, and even Southern Siberia as far north as the banks of the river Obi. It sometimes wanders in the direction of Europe ; for, according to M. Nordmann, one was killed near Tiflis in 1853. The Tiger rdakes its lair in jungles or densely wooded districts bordering on water- courses. Like the Lion, it has a den, to which it retires for rest ; from whence it steals forth, secretes itself in a wood on the borders of a frequented path, and there, con- cealed from every eye, awaits its victim. The moment it sees the object of its desire, its eyes flash, and its whole bearing manifests a savage joy ; it allows the unsuspecting prey to draw near, and when it is sufficiently close, springs upon it with tremendous velocity. If it winds prey a distance, it glides through the high grass with the undulating movements of the serpent, almost impossible to be detected by the human eye. The Tiger has for a long time borne a reputation for cruelty, as little deserved as that fox generosity which has been given the Lion. The old naturalists pretended that the Tiger gloried in shedding blood, and that it never saw a living creature without desiring to destroy it. Nothing can be more untrue. The Tiger does not kill for the pleasure of killing ; it kills only to appease its hunger. In doing this, it only conforms to the necessities of its nature ; but when it has fed, it does not exhibit any * Doubtless the author here alludes to the maneless Lion of G-uzerat. — Ed. Fig. 138. — Royal Tiger. 362 MAMMALIA. blood-thirsty propensity, and confines itself, when threatened, to defence. The expression relative to the “ Tiger thirsting for blood ” is a form of rhetoric which can only be accepted as a figurative expression. What may have been the cause for attributing a high degree of ferocity to the Tiger is its incredible audacity. In this it differs from the Lion, for when hungry no obstacle, not even the most certain danger, will arrest it. Nor does it delay, nor employ artifice to entrap its prey, nor will it abandon it if too powerful ; neither does it wait to be reduced by hunger to the last extremity before it braves every obstacle. No ; it throws itself without hesitation on the first object that presents, whether Man or animal, and will face death a thousand times in order to carry it off. This temerity is too frequently crowned with success. A large body of Indian horsemen are traversing a forest.* A Tiger glides through the underwood that skirts the road, springs upon one of them, drags him down from his horse, grasps him in its terrible jaws, and rushes back again to the wood, where it devours the unfortunate at leisure. These various movements are executed so rapidly, that there is scarcely time to see the marauder. (Fig. 139.) The Tiger is even bolder than this ; for it will carry off soldiers in the middle of their encampment beneath the eyes of the sentries. A feat of this kind has been reported by an English officer in every respect trustworthy, and who was an eye-witness. A Tiger has been seen to select a victim from the midst of an immense assemblage of men. This happened at the fair at Hurdwar, where a considerable concourse of people annually gather from all parts of India. The animal sprang out from a thicket situated in a field of barley, and in the sight of a terror- stricken crowd, struck down a native who was peacefully occupied in cutting spice. These facts, and many others which would be too long to enumerate, fully justify the terror that the Tiger inspires in Asia. Each year it marks its presence by the destruction of numerous human beings. According to statistics recently pub- * Tigers very rarely attack persons on horseback. The Hindoos attribute this to their inability to comprehend such a combination. — Ed. Fig. 139.— Indian Horsemen surprised by a Tiger. 364 MAMMALIA. listed in an English journal, a hundred and forty-eight persons in one year, and a hundred and thirty-one in another, were i devoured by Tigers in J ava. Tiger-hunting holds a high place among the amusements of the Indian nabobs and the English officers stationed in Hindostan. || This sport is principally followed on Elephants placed in line, and on which the hunters ride. When all is ready, at a pre- concerted signal, they enter the jungles, beat them in every j direction, and compel the Tiger to show itself. Eire-arms then j do their work. It often happens that the ferocious Carnivore j springs on the flank of an Elephant and tries to seize one of the riders. Like the Lioness, the Tigress exhibits a most extraordinary degree of affection for her young, and will defend them with her life against every peril. She conceals them in the same manner as the former from the voracity of the male. A litter is generally composed of from three to five cubs. Whatever may be said to the contrary, the Tiger is capable of being trained, and rendered perfectly docile ; it is even susceptible of a certain degree of attachment. The one that lived, in 1835, in the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, had been brought from India in a ship on which it had been allowed to wander about at large. The confidence it inspired was such that the cabin-boys lay between its legs, and slept with their heads on its flanks. A Tigress which had been brought to England, and which had i not shown any signs of a bad disposition on board ship, became morose when shut up in the menagerie of the Tower of London. Some time after, however, a sailor, one of its late travelling companions, came to visit the menagerie, and solicited per- mission to enter the den where this Tigress was confined. The latter at once recognised him, and testified the greatest pleasure. All the day after its friend had departed it lay prostrate with i grief. Nero had a Tigress, named Phoebe, that he often kept near him in his apartments, and which he more than once made the instru- ; ment of his brutal vindictive feelings. At the termination of an orgie, nothing gratified him so much as to point out to this animal some illustrious Patrician that had come under his OEDEE OE CAENIYOEA. 365 displeasure, and quickly a bleeding victim rolled at tbe feet of the monster with a human face. Here, the veritable Tiger was Hero. When raised to the empire, Heliogabalus made his entry into I Rome in a chariot drawn by four Tigers and four Panthers, which I he afterwards allowed to go about his palace at liberty. But in modern times who has not seen Martin, Carter, or Yan . Amburgh, handle Tigers as if they had been inoffensive Poodles ? It may be remarked, with, regard to this subject, that a person of rank attended, it is said, every one of the exhibitions given by Martin, expecting to see him some day eaten up. This follower of the sensational did not obtain the satisfaction his persistency so well merited : Martin and his animals refused to favour him. After amassing a considerable fortune, the famous tamer disposed of his menagerie and retired to Holland, without leaving the smallest portion of himself between the teeth of his old companions. Panther (Felts leopardus). — The Panther is a pretty animal, about three feet in length, not including the tail, and is distin- guished from the preceding Felidae by its deep yellowish-brown coat, speckled with numerous spots. These spots, quite black on the head, are disposed in a rose-like fashion over the other parts of the body, being formed of five or six little black patches grouped in a circular manner around a piece which is of the same colour as the ground of the coat. For a long time, and even sometimes now-a-days, the Panther has been frequently confounded with the Leopard, to which cer- tainly it bears a great resemblance. From this error has arisen grave contradictions as to its history, and much uncertainty with regard to the limits of its habitat. It appears to be demonstrated, however, that the veritable Panther is not found in Africa, but only in India, Japan, and the neighbouring islands, such as Java, Sumatra, &c. The island of Java possesses a variety which is completely black. This is the famous Black Panther, the terror of Java and Sumatra. We here engrave (Fig. 140) the Asiatic Panther, which some- times bears the scientific name of the Japan Leopard (Leopardus japonicus ). 366 MAMMALIA. The Panther ascends trees with agility ; into which it pursues Monkeys and other climbing animals. It is a ferocious and un- tamable animal, and inhabits only the wildest forests. No Carni- vore, not even the Tiger, is more unconquerable, and its pursuit is proportionably dangerous. It rarely attacks Man without being Fig. 140. — Panther (F. leopardus , Linn.) provoked ; but it is irritated at the merest trifle, and its anger is manifested by the lightning rapidity of its onset, which in- variably results in the speedy death of the imprudent being who has aroused its fury. Its power, nimbleness, and stealth surpass anything that can be imagined ; and it is these qualities ‘ which render it so dangerous. ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 367 Notwithstanding its ferocity when in a state of savage inde- pendence, the Panther is easily tamed when captured young. It then shows itself as mild and affectionate as the most docile dog, and wanders at large in its master’s dwelling without the slightest danger. Leopard (F. pardus). — The Leopard is much larger than the Panther. In size it generally equals a three-year old Lioness. Some have been seen which measured about eleven feet from the nose to the tip of the tail (the latter represents one-third of the total length), another which weighed more than thirty- two stones. In dissecting one of these animals, there has been found a difference which sufficiently indicates that the two species are distinct : the tail of the Leopard has only twenty- two vertebrae, while that of the Panther has twenty-eight. The Leopard also differs from the real Panther in its coat, which is of a brighter fawn colour ; at the same time the spots are farther apart, and the centre is darker. It inhabits the whole of Africa and a large part of Asia, extending as far as the regions bordering on the Caucasus. In many recent wwks on natural history, and in several accounts of hunting and travelling, the African Leopard is desig- nated as the Great Panther, which is conformable to the opinion of Temminck, and contrary to that of Buffon and Cuvier. We will continue to give the name of Great Panther to the African Leopard, because there is a reason for this, — the only characters that distinguish the Leopard from the real Panther being the larger size of the first, and the number of tail vertebrae in the latter. When we call the Leopard the Great Panther and the African Panther, there can be no possible mistake ; it will be understood what animal is meant. Otherwise this expression would not be employed by us except from a desire to conform to the general custom. The Leopard (Great Panther, African Panther) is a still more terrible animal than the Panther ; for with the same natural ferocity, it possesses a more formidable amount of strength. It will make a bound of forty feet with surprising ease, and fall on its prey with the rapidity of a cannon-shot. It keeps by pre- ference in places covered with brushwood, and near streams or 368 MAMMALIA. arms of the sea ; it is rarely found on high mountains. It is generally believed to climb trees, but this is a misconcep- tion ; though it sometimes happens that it may spring on a low sloping limb. What is really a fact is, that every day, before going in pursuit of prey, it sharpens its claws on a tree, against which it stretches all its length, and the imprint it leaves on the bark is a sure indication of its presence in the neighbourhood.^ It is also quite exceptional that it takes refuge among rocks; ordinarily its den is found in the midst of a thick forest. The Great Panther never hunts in the middle of the day, because sunlight is not suited to its sight ; but when night comes its vision is perfect, and then it starts in search of food. The whereabouts of its prey, being discovered, it creeps with the noiselessness of a serpent until it has arrived at a distance from which it judges it can be certain of success, then, taking its spring, it brings its captive to earth in an instant. In Algeria, where it is common, it commits numerous depredations upon the herds and flocks of the natives, and is not less dreaded than the Lion. Oxen, Horses, Camels, Goats, Sheep — such are its ordinary bill of fare. It seldom attacks Man without provocation, except it should chance upon him within its bound, when, if such be the case, his position would be perilous. Children are fre- quently its victims, as is testified by the fact mentioned in a journal published towards the end of 1850. A woman was at work in a field in the environs of Baraki (Algeria) ; to follow her occupation with more freedom, she deposited her child on the ground. Suddenly a Leopard, hearing the infant cry, rushed from a neighbouring thicket, and carried it off. When the poor mother returned, she saw the ferocious brute entering the wood with her babe in its jaws ; she followed in pursuit until, exhausted, she fainted. Her infant was lost ! On another occasion a boy about twelve years, who tended a flock of Goats, was assailed by a Leopard, which mutilated him in a frightful manner. After which it fled, having been frightened by the arrival of some Arabs, who were attracted * M. Figuier doubtless refers to tbe custom possessed by all the Cats, and more particularly by the Panthers, of stretching themselves by inserting tbeir claws in some object within reach, and extending themselves afterwards. Tabby and Grimalkin at home do the same. — Ed. OEDEE OF CAENIYOEA. 369 to the spot by the cries of the lad. The victim died after two days’ suffering. If destroying the Lion has immortalised Jules Gerard, the pursuit of the Panther has rendered another of his countrymen illustrious. We allude to Bombonnel, librarian of Dijon. This bold man devoted himself to Leopard-hunting in Africa, an occupation which can only be followed by the methods pursued by Gerard and Chassaing against Lions, and which is surrounded by even greater dangers. Bombonnel published in 1862 a most interesting book, contain- ing a description of his stirring adventures. We here reproduce a chapter in which he relates a terrific struggle he sustained with a Panther he had wounded : a fearful and almost fatal combat that occurred on the brink of a ravine. The countenance of the courageous hunter yet bears traces of this conflict. Bombonnel thus describes the event : — “ It was eight o’clock at night ; we were dining, and during our meal discussing our projects for the morrow, when there arrived, quite out of breath, an Arab belonging to the tribe of Ben-Assenat. He told me that at sunset a Panther came and carried off a Goat in the presence of the goat-herd, and that he had seen it enter a ravine, where it was certain to be found. I was too anxious to meet this infernal beast to hesitate an instant ; dinner was left unfinished, and a rush was made at once to my weapons, notwithstanding the representations of several who wished to detain me, by observing that the night was very dark and the weather bad; but knowing that the moon rose at ten o’clock, and that I ought to be with the tribe before that hour, I started. “The man who conducted me, in his endeavours to make a short cut, went along narrow tracks, and often through the brush- wood. My hunting-knife bumped against my legs and caught in the branches ; so, to get it out of the way, I pushed it round my waist-belt behind, instead of retaining it by my side. I mention this fact here, though it appears of but little importance, because, as will be seen hereafter, it was the means to which I owe my life. “ On reaching the tribe, I found the Arabs waiting for me. For a decoy they had got ready a Goat and a stake to attach it to. They led me about a quarter of a mile from the douar, to the B B 370 MAMMALIA. margin of a wide and deep ravine. Here they halted and ex- plained : — ‘ The Panther is inside there ; in this small thicket place yourself ; we will go and fix the lure/ I was very much surprised they had chosen such a convenient position for me, and Tig. 14 L. — Bombonuel. one which I could not have found without great difficulty. The ground was an inclined plane, which descended by a somewhat steep slope to the ravine, on the brink of which, facing from it, ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 371 I took my stand. The Arabs drove in the stake on the higher ground, about twenty feet from me, and there tied the Goat, then, wishing me good luck, ran off with all haste, not desiring to become intimate with the dangerous animal they believed in the vicinity. “ I had seated myself in the thicket, and had not drawn my hunting-knife from its sheath to lay it on the ground so as to have it handy, for a few minutes had scarcely elapsed, when separating the slender twigs which might impede its movements, quicker than lightning the marauder fell upon the bait. I held my breath, and hesitated firing, hoping the moon would afford me a gleam of light ; a delay of some seconds thus ensued, for its rays only occasionally showed through the dark flitting clouds. “ But what was my astonishment to see the Panther passing by me, carrying off the Goat with the ease of a Cat bearing off a Mouse. It was about ten feet from me, and moving directly across; I could neither distinguish head or tail, only a black indistinct mass. . . . The remembrance of my thirty-four un- successful nights flashed across my mind ; impatience carried me completely away, and, forgetting all prudent resolutions, I pulled the trigger. “ My gun, a twelve bore, was loaded with 110 grains of powder and twenty-four slugs. The object of my aim fell, uttering guttural roars, at the same time dropping the Goat. I had broken the Panther’s two fore paws ; yet it had not seen from whence the shot came, and might have thought that the Goat had ex- ploded in his jaws. “ The slightest movement on my part would be certain to attract attention ; common sense demanded that the most complete im- mobility should be observed ; but fearing a surprise, I determined to stand up in my hiding-place to see over it, and be the better prepared for results. In rising a branch caught the hood of my cloak and threw it down on my shoulder. This was another of the providential chances to which I owe my life. “ The wily brute, now alarmed, did not utter a cry or a sound, but fixed its attention on the thicket and listened. A few moments passed, and I, hearing and seeing nothing, thought the foe dead. b b 2 372 MAMMALIA. “ Crouching, and using every possible precaution, I issued from my shelter, carrying my gun with the barrels depressed and my finger on the second trigger. As soon as I was perceived the Panther made a spring of ten feet towards me. I aimed at its head ; but the rapidity with which it came was so great, and the darkness so intense, that I missed, — my ball entering the ground, and the fire from my piece singeing the hair on its neck. “ The terrible brute now threw itself upon me, and bore me to the ground in an instant. I fell underneath on my back, with my shoulders caught in the bush that had served me as a place of concealment. First my foe attempted to strangle me, and fixing upon my neck, tore at it in indescribable rage. This was for- tunately protected by the collar and thick hood of my cloak. “ With my left hand I endeavoured to defend myself and push off my assailant, while with the right I made desperate efforts to grasp the hunting-knife that lay under me. The former it bit through and through, notwithstanding the woollen sleeve that covered it ; it also gnawed my face horribly : one of the fangs of the upper jaw tore my forehead and went through my nose ; the other fang entered at the corner of the left eye and broke my cheek-bone. Incapable of resisting with one hand, I abandoned the useless search for my knife, and with my two hands I con- vulsively grasped my assailant by the neck. It then seized me across the face, and driving its formidable teeth into the flesh, smashed the whole of my jaw. The noise thus caused sounded so painfully that I thought my brains were being crushed out. My face was in its mouth, from whence issued a burning, infected breath that stifled me. Still I clung to the foe by the neck, which was as large and hard as the trunk of a tree, and at length, with the strength of despair, I was enabled to thrust away its horrible head from mine. It then seized me by the left arm, and bit four times through the elbow. Without the large amount of clothing with which it was covered, it must have been crushed like a piece of glass. “ All this time I was lying on my back on the extreme brink of the ravine, my legs above and head downwards. 4 4 The Panther tried a second time to take me by the face ; I resisted ; but my strength was all but exhausted. Making a movement to better my position, it clutched my head. Gathering Fig. 142. — A Midnight Duel. 374 MAMMALIA. all the strength and determination that yet remained for a final effort, I disengaged myself, leaving my wadded cloth cap in its jaws. I had thrown the brute from me so vigorously that it slipped over the steep slope ; the two front paws being broken, it could not check itself, so went crashing headlong, at the same time roaring, into the ravine. “At last released, though not a moment too soon, I relieved ni}rself, but spitting out four of my teeth and a mass of blood that filled my mouth. Entirely given up to the fury which possessed me, burning for vengeance, I seized my hunting-knife, and not knowing where the brute had gone, sought him on every side, to recommence the struggle (for I did not believe I could long survive my wounds). It was in this position that the Arabs found me. “ They told me that they heard the Panther quite distinctly, and that its roars made their flesh creep ; that they had no doubt j as to its combat with me, but that they imagined it roared because of its wounds, so they judged it best not to sally forth until the sounds ceased. “ The thirst of revenge, and especially the mortification I experienced at not being the victor in a battle which I had sought, dominated over me to such a degree that I did all I could to find my antagonist, determined either to kill or be killed. Put the Arabs dragged me to their douar, where they tried to bathe my face and bandage my wounds ; but I would not allow them, and at once proceeded to the farm of Corso, which I reached at midnight. Judge of the astonishment of all its inhabitants, who the same evening had seen me start off strong and well, when they beheld me in my mangled condition. “ At my desire, the man who had carried me there on his Mule I went at once to Algiers for Doctor Bodichon, one of my intimate j|' friends, in whose skill I had entire confidence. “ While the people at the farm were lavishing upon me their I attentions, with an intelligence and good-will which I shall re- member all my life, I asked for a looking-glass. But they were afraid to gratify me, and pretended not to be able to find one. I however took a candle, and in spite of all they could say went to a mirror. My left cheek was torn and lay in my mouth, leaving the bone broken and exposed ; the frontal bone could OEDEE OE CAENIYOEA. 375 also be seen for a space of more than three inches ; with regard to my poor nose, which was formerly aquiline, it was flattened, lacerated, and smashed in a fearful manner. “ Those who surrounded me were very sad, and less composed than myself. I read in their faces that they thought me a dead man ; but I tried to reassure them, by telling them that the heart was still sound and cheerful. Previous to this I had often said that the happiest day of my life would be that on which, armed only with my hunting-knife, I should encounter a wounded Pan- ther or Lion, so much did I reckon on the vigour of my arm. Oh, St. Hubert, pardon this foolish prayer ! “ Now when I read, or am told, of the larger Carnivora being killed with hatchets and daggers, I can scarcely forbear laughing. Is it possible to attack successfully with any other weapon than a gun such a powerful and agile animal as a Panther, a brute weighing from two to four hundred pounds, and whose weight is more than quadrupled by the length and impetuosity of its bound; a brute that falls upon you with the rapidity of lightning,, and before there is time to make a movement of defence ? Where is the Hercules capable of resisting such a shock P “ Notwithstanding the providential chance that placed me on the slippery margin of the ravine, and also notwithstanding the other favourable circumstances that protected me, if my late foe had not been deprived of the use of his fore feet, I must have been lost. Even in the condition in which it was, if I had been able to seize my knife, I could not have prevented it retaining hold of me. On the one hand, I could not have had strength to push it off; and, on the other, I should not have been able to kill it quick enough to prevent its terrible jaws from mangling me. It will be seen, then, how fortune favoured me. If from such a fearful struggle I came off with my life, it is because I was as desperate in defending myself as the animal was savage in attack- ing me ; but, above everything, I owe my preservation to God and St. Hubert.” The portrait of Bombonnel given above (Fig-- 141) is accom- panied by the head of the terrible Carnivore whose exploits and death we have just recorded. Ounce and Serval. — The Ounce (Leopardus uneia)7 Fig. 143,. is 376 MAMMALIA. intermediate in size between tbe Panther and Leopard. The colour of its coat is not yellow, but grey. Its spots are much more irregular than those of the two preceding Felinse. It is a native of Asia. Nothing particular is known as to its habits. The Serval (Felis served ), also named the Cat-pard or Tiger Cat, is only about; thirty inches long. It is found in the forests of southern Africa ; also in Senegambia, Abyssinia, and Algeria. It Fig. 143. — Ounce ( Leopardus unci'a , Linn.). lives on small Mammals, particularly Monkeys and Rodents, which it pursues on the trees. Rearing it in confinement has no power whatever to soften its savage nature. Its fur, which is varied with bars and black spots on a buff ground, is much prized. Wild and Domestic Cats. — The Wild Cat (Fig. 144) is a reddish- brown animal, marked with more or less distinct black stripes. OEDEE OF CAENIYOEA. 377 Its length is about two feet. It does not differ in its habits from the larger members of this family. It climbs trees with agility, and feeds on Birds, Squirrels, Hares, Babbits, &c. At one time it was very common in France and Scotland. Its habitat is nearly the whole of Europe, and a large portion of Asia. There ought to be ranged beside the Wild Cat a multitude of species, which are only separated from it by differences in the colour of the pelage and length of hair, and which are its repre- Fig. 144. — Wild Cat (Felis catus, Linn.). sentatives in the countries it does not inhabit. Such are the Pampas Cat, the Bengal Cat, the jNepaul Cat, the Egyptian Cat, the Serval Cat, the Caffir Cat, indigenous to the Cape, &c. Certain authors are inclined to believe that the numerous varieties of the Domestic Cat have descended from the Wild Cat, crossed with the Egyptian Cat. However this may be, there exist several breeds of well-characterised Domestic Cats. Such are the Spanish Cat, the Chartreuse Cat, the Bed Cat of Tobolsk, 378 MAMMALIA, the Angora Cat, the Chinese Cat with pendant ears, and the tailless Malay Cat.* The Domestic Cat (Fig. 145) is one of those few animals which has remained in a state of independence in its domesticity ; it lives with Man, but still is not reduced to servitude. If it renders service, it is simply for its own interest to do so. That disin- Fig. 145. — Domestic Cat (Felis domestica , Briss.). terestedness which distinguishes the Dog we do not find in the Cat. Whatever Buffon and others may have said, it is capable of affection ; but this attachment is only manifested by infrequent caresses, not by devotion. Has a Cat ever been known to defend * The tails of Wild Cats terminate in an abrupt thick point, while the tails of Domestic Cats taper to a fine point. — Ed. ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 379 its master ? It lias been said that it is more attached to localities than persons ; we know of numerous exceptions to this. The Cat possesses qualities which alienate it from all our sym- pathies, viz., cowardice and dishonesty. It is also distrustful : this we can least pardon. Man dislikes suspicion, as it is an offence against his honour, and an insult to his good intentions. When we compare the Dog and the Cat, so different from each other, aversion to the one and attachment to the other results. To the distrustful gaze of the Cat is opposed the confiding, frank eye of the Dog ; and to the noble qualities in the latter we oppose the objectionable ones in the former. No animal is more savage than the Cat when threatened by chastisement or danger. For when it sees no chance of escape, it defends itself with energy that cannot be surpassed. So long as its enemy keeps at a respectful distance, it confines itself to a passive resistance, watching, however, for the slightest indica- tion of hostility, and holding itself ready for every emergency. Should its adversary advance to seize it, with wonderful activity it strikes with its terrible claws, at the same time expressing anger with its voice. It nearly always comes off victorious, unlses over-matched, for its agility renders escape almost certain. The Cat is less an enemy of the Dog than is generally believed. When unacquainted with one another, they have little sympathy in common ; but when associated for a length of time they become good friends. Then they lick each other, sleep on each other, and understand making mutual concessions, which enable them to live in peace ; in short, the most perfect harmony frequently reigns between them. Every one who keeps Cats and Dogs can testify to the correctness of these assertions. The Jaguar ( Leopardm onca ), Fig. 146, also called the American Tiger, is the largest carnivorous animal of the New World. It almost equals the Tiger in size, strength, and blood- thirstiness ; it measures nearly seven feet from the end of the nose to the root of the tail. It is not zebra-striped like the Tiger, but spotted in the same manner as the Panther. Its mark- ings are most numerous on the head, thighs, legs, and back, but always irregular in shape ; on the flanks they are concentric, like a rose, with a black point in the middle. The ground colour of the coat is of a bright tawny hue above, and white beneath. 380 MAMMALIA. The Jaguar is spread over nearly the whole of South America, and in the warmer parts of North America. It inhabits the great Fig. 146.— The Jaguar ( Leopardus onca , Linn.). forests traversed by rivers, and actively pursues various aquatic Mammals. Like the Tiger, it swims with ease, and passes the day ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 381 in inaction among the islets which stud the surfaces of the great lagoons and rivers. In the evening it seeks its food, and levies a heavy tribute on the immense herds of wild cattle and Horses that graze in the Pampas of the Plata. With a single blow of its paw it breaks the vertebral column of its victims. It fishes, we are told, very adroitly, and is not afraid of attacking the largest Cayman. The Jaguar climbs trees with agility, to the great discomfiture of the Monkeys which it pursues. Notwithstanding the fires that travellers make at night to keep away these ferocious animals, they do not always escape its attacks. At the setting and rising of the sun it gives utterance to two cries, which are well known to the natives and to hunters. It is by this means that it announces to living nature the commence- ment and the termination of its feeding operations, and thus excites terror or joy. In certain parts of America, Jaguars were so numerous, that, according to Azara, in the seventeenth cen- tury, two thousand were killed every year at Paraguay. At the present time many are yet to be found in that region, although their numbers are considerably diminished. The Puma or Cougar ( Leoparclus concolor ), formerly improperly called the American Lion, is an animal about four and a half feet long,* and of an uniform fawn colour without any spots. It inhabits Paraguay, Brazil, Guiana, Mexico, and the United States. It has the general appearance of a Lioness, without possessing its dimensions. This animal is alike remarkable for stealth and agility. It makes great ravages among the herds, and differs from the other Cats, in slaying numerous victims before it commences to feed. To carry off the smaller domestic animals, it visits human habitations during the night. It prefers living in the open country, yet it climbs trees ; its agility is such, that at one bound it can ascend upwards of twenty feet. The Puma is easily tamed, when it knows its master, and receives his caresses with pleasure. No inconvenience results from allowing it to run about at liberty. The celebrated English actor Kean, * The size of the Puma is frequently greater than here stated. At the early settlement of the United States numerous children, even adults, were killed by these animals. At the present date both white and red men dread them more than any Svild animal found in their habitat. — Ed. 382 MAMMALIA, had a Puma which followed him like a Dog, and kept close to him in the most crowded assembly. The Ocelot (Felis pardalis, Linn.), one of the most beautiful of the Felinse, is a little more than three feet in length. The colour of its pelage is a greyish fawn, marked with large spots of a bright fawn, edged with black. Its habits are entirely nocturnal, it feeds on Monkeys, Rodents, and Birds, climbing the trees in Fig. 147. — Puma ( Felis puma, Shaw). their pursuit with marvellous agility. It is found in various parts of North and South America. Like the Puma, it rapidly becomes attached to Man. Azara has seen one which, although it enjoyed the greatest liberty, would never leave its master. Lynxes (. Lyncus ). — The animals belonging to the Lynx family differ from the Cats in their longer coat, their shorter tail, and ORDER OF CARNIVORA 383 their ears, which are terminated by a tuft of hair ; their dentition is however the, same. A great number of varieties of Lynx are known, as well in the Old as in the New World. The two principal, however, are the European Lynx and the Caracal. The European Lynx (Le Lynx, Buff.), Fig. 148, is well known in the great forests of Northern Europe, and in Asia; it is also found in some of the Alps and Pyrenees, as well as in the Sierras of Spain. This Carnivore measures from thirty to thirty- fig. 148. — European Lynx ( t'elis Lynx, Linn.). six inches, not including the tail, which is four inches long. The upper parts of its body are of a bright red colour, with small brown spots, while the under parts are white. On each side of its face it has an addition of white hairs, which resemble whiskers. The name of “ Loup-cervier,” sometimes given to it, probably originated from its howling like a Wolf during the night. It nimbly climbs trees in pursuit of prey. Martens, Ermines, Hares and Rabbits also enter into its alimentation. It does not, MAMMALIA. 384 however, eat the flesh of large victims, unless its hunger is ex- treme ; hut generally is satisfied by sucking out the brain. Taken young, it becomes accustomed to captivity, and is fond of being caressed ; but it will return to its wild life if oppor- tunity offers, so really never becomes attached to its master. It is an extremely cleanly animal, and, like the Cat, passes a large portion of its time in washing and cleansing its fur. Fig. 149. — Tlie Caragal ( telis caracal , Buff.). The Caracal ( Caracal melanotis), Fig. 149, is about the size of the preceding animal. Its pelage is red above, without any spots ; j its chest is fawn coloured, speckled with brown. It is the Lynx of the ancients, and inhabits the north and east of Africa, Arabia, and I Persia. Its habits differ but little from those of the Lynx. It preys chiefly upon Antelopes and Gazelles. It always ! retains, when in captivity, a savage disposition, and a great ; desire for liberty. ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 385 The Greeks consecrated it to Bacchus, and Pliny has debited to its credit several absurd stories. Among others, he endows it with the faculty of seeing through walls ; hence the expression Lynx-eyed , which is adopted in our language to designate very keen vision. After these two varieties we will mention the Marsh Lynx, so named in consequence of its habits, which are quite exceptional Fig. 150.— Marsh Lynx. among the Felinse. This animal inhabits the Caucasus and i Eastern Africa, and is essentially aquatic. It delights in water, swims well, pursues marsh birds, and even dives for fish. We will say nothing of the American Lynxes, as their habits do not present any remarkable peculiarity. The Cheetah ( Gueparda jubata). — The Cheetah or Hunting I Leopard forms the transition between the Felinse and Canina, or, in other terms, between the Dog and Cat. By its physical organisation and its character it belongs, in fact, to both these classes. It has weak, non-retractile claws, which are unfitted for tearing purposes ; but in its dentition it unmistakably shows its affinity to the Cat family. Its limbs are also longer, the vertebral column is less flexible, and the body more slender than that of the other Felinse, from whence results a greater aptitude for hunting. Its tail is curled over on itself at the extremity, a disposition very common in Dogs, but which is not observed in the Felinse. Its mildness, obedient temper, and attachment in domesticity, naturally define its place on the confines of the Feline and the Canine family. 386 MAMMALIA. The Hunting Leopard inhabits Southern Asia and various parts of Africa. It is about four feet in length, and twenty- six inches in height. Its fur is very elegant, being a bright fawn colour above, perfectly white beneath, and everywhere interspersed with black spots. The tail is barred with twelve alternately wffiite and black rings. A quantity of hair, longer than on other parts of the body, grows on the back of the head and neck, forming a scanty mane. The Cheetah seizes its prey by a succession of bounds remark- able for their rapidity. In India and Persia has been adopted the habit of training it to hunt certain animals, its natural docility allowing it to be readily trained for this service. The custom of employing the female Cheetah for hunting goes back to a very remote period, for the Arab fthazes speak of it in the tenth century. In Mongolia the following is the method of conducting this sport. The sportsmen start off on horseback, carrying the Cheetah either on a Horse, or in a carriage specially constructed for the purpose. The animal is chained, and its eyes blindfolded. The places which Gazelles frequent are sought out. As soon as one is perceived, the hunters stop, the Cheetah is unfastened, and its eyes unbandaged, and the game is pointed out to it. Imme- diately, under cover of the high vegetation and brushwood, the beast glides off in pursuit, taking advantage, with unequalled tact, of the slightest breaks in the ground to conceal its movements. When it considers that it is sufficiently near its victim, it suddenly shows itself, dashes on with terrible impetuosity, springs on the prey after a succession of prodigious bounds, and immediately pulls it to the ground. Its master, who has followed the events of the chase, then enters upon the scene. To detach it from its victim, he throws it a piece of flesh, speaks gently to it, and caresses it ; after which he again covers its eyes, and replaces it on the saddle or in its conveyance, while the assistants carry off the quarry. This kind of amusement is greatly in vogue in Mongolia, and a well-trained Hunting Leopard attains an extraordinary price among the inhabitants. In Persia this method of hunting is not conducted in quite the same way. Men and Dogs beat the woods, and drive the game 387 OEDEB OF CABNIYOEA. towards the hunters, who turn off the Cheetahs when the quarry passes them. These facts sufficiently prove that the Cheetah differs essentially in its nature from the other Felinae. It is tamed almost as easily as the Dog, knows and loves its master, recognises his voice, and runs to him when called. In its treatment of strangers, it is so docile that it may he allowed perfect liberty. In menageries it is not necessary to confine it. If allowed to ramble about a park it is very submissive to its keeper, and receives with the greatest goodwill the caresses of visitors. The menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, has had one for many years, which wras brought from Senegal. It had a most excellent temper. One day, among the spectators present, it saw a little negro wrho had travelled with it in the same ship, it immediately testified the greatest pleasure at finding an old friend. Family of Canldje. — The Canina are digitigrade animals, whose claws are neither sharp nor retractile, and consequently cannot serve either for attack or defence. They possess four digits on the hind feet ; on the front they have five. Their tongue is smooth, in this respect different from that of Cats. Their tail is long, and more or less clothed with hair. They are the most intelligent of the Carnivora. Their senses, particularly that of smell, are strongly developed. They are spread over the entire surface of the globe, from the highest to the lowest latitudes. The Canina comprise three genera — Fox, Dog, and Hyena- Dog. Genus Fox. — This genus comprises, besides the Common Fox, a certain number of Carnivora which differ but little from each other, and which are distributed over the two continents. They all have a nocturnal pupil, the muzzle extremely tapering, and the tail very full. In general they exhale a disagreeable odour, by which their presence is betrayed. We will describe the habits of the Common Fox, as this one is the best known, and has been the most studied. The Common Fox is still to be found throughout Europe. From time immemorial it has enjoyed a reputation for cun- c c 2 ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 389 ning, which has given it great notoriety. “ As cunning as a Fox” is one of the most common adages in the languages of nations. The Fox never attacks animals capable of resistance. In the ' twilight it ventures out in quest of its prey, when it wanders S silently around the country, prowling about the covers and hedges, hoping to surprise Birds, Babbits, or Hares, its usual prey. j In default of such delicate food, however, it will eat Field-Mice, Lizards, Frogs, &c. It does not dislike certain fruits. For j grapes it exhibits a great predilection. To domestic fowls it is terribly destructive. When during its nocturnal prowling the crow of a Cock strikes its ear, it turns at once in the direction of the welcome sound. It wanders in- cessantly around the poultry-yard, examining, scrutinising, and I observing all the weak points by which an entrance might be gained. When at last successful in reaching the hen-roost, a reckless carnage among its occupants is made, and this not ! so much to satisfy a craving for blood as to provide store for the future. With this object, one by one the victims are carried off, and concealed in the woods or its den. If all efforts to enter the hen-roost are unsuccessful, then Bey- nard undertakes to ruin it in detail, and to slay in one or more months those which he cannot kill in a day. With this intention he installs himself on the margin of a wood, in proximity to the farm, and anxiously watches every movement of the poultry. If his prey wander into the fields, his attentions are doubled ; seizing the moment when the watch- dog is out of sight, he creeps towards them on his belly, draws near his victim without being seen, seizes, strangles, and carries it off. When these manoeuvres have once succeeded, they are repeated till the poultry-yard is de- populated. The following story, narrated to me by an old woodman, also illustrates their cunning. Two Foxes, located in a neighbour- hood where Hares abounded, adopted an ingenious stratagem for capturing them. One of them lay in ambush on the side of a road ; the other started the quarry and pursued it with ardour, with the object of driving the game into the road guarded by his associate. From time to time, by an occasional bark, the associate 390 MAMMALIA. in ambush was notified bow the chase was succeeding. When a Hare was driven into the road it was immediately pounced on, and both Foxes devoured it in thorough good fellowship. Never- theless, it sometimes happened that the Fox who kept watch mis- calculated his spring, and the Hare escaped. When, as though puzzled at his want of skill, he resumed his post, jumped on to the road, and several times repeated the movement. His comrade arriving in the middle of this exercise, was not slow to compre- hend its meaning, and irritated at being fatigued to no purpose, chastised his clumsy associate ; but a tussle of a few minutes sufficed to expend the bad humour, and the entente cor diale was quickly re-established. The adult Fox is also assisted by its young in procuring food when they become sufficiently aged. Some observers aver that these family excursions are undertaken for the education of the cubs. When on a foray to obtain aquatic birds, among the reeds and rushes that margin the borders of lakes and rivers, Foxes always proceed with extreme caution, and take especial care not to become unnecessarily wet. M. La Vallee, in his work on La Chasm d Courre, gives a very remarkable example of the singular address of the Fox in pro- secuting his robberies. The animal he speaks of, was taken when young by a druggist of Chateau-Thierry. It was per- fectly tamed, liked being fondled, came at the call of its master, and followed him to the chase, where it played the part of an excellent Hog. But domesticity had not caused it to lose any of its taste for marauding, though it wanted for nothing at home. It was the hero of an adventure which for a long time perplexed the good town of Chateau-Thierry. The house where it was kept was situated at the corner of the market-place, and had two excessively narrow cellar ventilators opening into the street, before which it was customary for the dealers, who bought eggs from the neighbouring peasants for the Paris or Meaux markets, to range themselves. Before being packed off the eggs were inspected, and those which were cracked were laid on one side. One day, a poor woman who had placed two dozen chipped eggs behind her, was astonished when turning round a few minutes afterwards to find them gone. She blamed her neighbour for ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 391 Raying robbed her, and probably tbe discussion was only ter- minated by a quarrel. On tbe next market day tbe same larceny was committed. It was believed to be tbe waggish trick of some urcbin in tbe neighbourhood, and some suspicion was even attached to tbe young clerks of tbe sheriff, who occupied tbe ground- floor of tbe bouse. At tbe succeeding market a watcher was placed before tbe dealer, to observe what went on around ber ; but this person saw nothing, although one half tbe number of broken eggs disappeared. Tbe case became serious. Tbe dealer then bethought herself of depositing ber property beneath ber petticoat, between ber feet, certain that there they would be in safety. But tbe eggs again vanished. As a matter of course all was attributed to witchcraft. It was not long after this when tbe truth was discovered. Tbe druggist’s Fox was found squatted in tbe ventilators, and where no one could ever have believed it possible tbe beast could intro- duce itself, so narrow were tbe openings. As soon as an egg was laid on tbe ground, it pushed up its bead, seized it and with- drew. This operation it could perform with perfect security, concealed as it was not only by tbe feet and tbe petticoats of tbe dealer, but also by tbe panniers that lay around. One of tbe most frequent stratagems of tbe Fox, and which denotes an extraordinary amount of intelligence, consists in simulating death when surprised by tbe hunters, and there is no hope of safety by flight. It may then be handled, kicked about in every direction, even lifted by tbe tail, bung up in tbe air, or carried thrown over one’s shoulder, without showing tbe slightest sign of vitality. But as soon as released, and opportunity for escape offers, it will decamp with all baste, to tbe great amazement of those so cleverly duped. Tbe Fox most frequently inhabits a burrow or “ earth,” which it excavates among stones, rocks, or under tbe trunk of a tree, at tbe edge of a wood ; at other times it digs its subterraneous retreat on cultivated land ; always it is careful to have it on an elevated slope, so as to be protected against rain and inundations. At times it appropriates tbe burrow of a Babbit or Badger, and rearranges it to suit itself. In tbe first case, it simply throttles 392 MAMMALIA. the proprietor ; in the second, it pollutes with its urine the den, and in this way drives out the legitimate owner. Its dwelling it divides into three parts : the first is the place from whence it examines the neighbourhood before coming out, and from where it watches for a favourable moment to escape its persecutors, when a fatiguing pursuit has driven it to seek an asylum in its retreat. Then comes the store-room, a place with several outlets, where the provisions are stored away. Lastly, ! behind the store-room, quite at the bottom of the burrow, is the den, the sleeping chamber and real habitation of the animal. There it brings forth and suckles its young, and there the female takes refuge in great emergencies. The Fox seldom regularly inhabits its burrow, except when rearing young. After that period it generally sleeps in a cover, near a spot where it thinks plunder is to be had, sometimes at a distance of two or three leagues from its earth. In the Fox maternal instinct is highly developed. It watches its cubs with solicitude, provides for their wants, and courageously defends them against their enemies. A litter is composed of from three to five young, which are horn about the month of April. The male and female live together until their progeny is reared ; after which they separate. The duration of a Fox’s existence is from thirteen to fourteen years. The serious depredations committed by this animal have caused it to he classed among the most obnoxious, and for this reason, in nearly all countries, Man adopts every means to accomplish its destruction. The wealthier classes of the English people are devoted to Fox- hunting, and expend large sums to support kennels of Fox- Hounds. This example has not gained much popularity in France. To enjoy successfully this sport, care must he taken the evening preceding the chase to close up all burrows in the neighbourhood, and thus cut the animal off from taking refuge in them, which it is sure to attempt when it finds itself hard pressed. This pre- caution taken, Master Reynard is almost certainly doomed, for he leaves after him so powerful a scent that the hounds with facility follow his track. So full of devices to destroy the life of others, he scarcely manifests any to save his own, but confines himself ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 393 to retracing the course he has pursued time after time, till the voracious pack overtake him and tear him in pieces.* Old stagers, however, are sometimes found who disconcert all pursuit by fleeing to places inaccessible to hounds and hunts- men. It is the business of the huntsman to know these localities, and to prevent the game from entering them. This is done in France by placing a piece of cord across the approach to the sanctum, garnished with feathers or scraps of bright-coloured cloth. The Fox seeing this object suspects a snare, and doubles back ; and probably perishes through this excess of prudence, f Destroying them with fire-arms is much more easy. A certain number of sportsmen occupy the paths of a wood which is known to contain Foxes. The vermin, started by some cur Dogs, take to their runs, thus offering an easy shot ; if they escape, the sportsmen have usually only their own unskilfulness to blame. { When the Fox runs to earth, and obstinately refuses to be unkennelled Terriers are often successfully employed, which, crawling into the lair, drive the possessor out. Sometimes Reynard resists all attempts to expel him. There is nothing then to be done but to smoke him out, or to lay open his retreat with the pickaxe. The first operation, being the simplest, is generally preferred. All the openings of the burrow are closed, except that to windward; into this is introduced, as deeply as possible, a sulphur match ; bushes and leaves are collected in front of the hole, and set on fire. The smoke, blown by the wind, penetrates to the bottom of the burrow, carrying with it the sulphurous vapours. The subterranean cavity being completely pregnated, the smoke returns against the wind ; the last opening is then hermetically closed, and things are left in this state until the next day, when the Fox is sure to be found dead near one of the orifices. When Foxes overrun a country more energetic measures are had recourse to in order to destroy them : viz. by traps and poison. We have seen, by the history of the Chateau-Thierry Fox, that this Carnivore is susceptible of being tamed. It is nevertheless * This description is evidently intended for the French. Fox, not for the en- during, plucky animals of our central counties. — Ed. f The Continental method of Fox-hunting. — Ed. X No sportsman in England, it is hoped, would be guilty of shooting a Fox. — Ed. 394 MAMMALIA. necessary to make a reserve. Its sanguinary instincts are in- vincible ; tbe desire for blood is a necessity of its nature. We might, perhaps, succeed in entirely banishing these instincts by submitting the animal to prolonged domestication during succes- sive generations, but it cannot be brought about by a few years’ training. This is the reason why it is so difficult to keep an adult Fox ; the depredations that it never ceases to commit are a con- tinual source of embarrassment to its owner, who at last, to end the annoyance, ultimately gets rid of it. The flesh of the Fox exhales so repulsive an odour that it is | even repugnant to many animals. Some people, however, use it, principally those in vine- growing districts, where it feeds on ! grapes. It is stated that this offensive smell can be readily got rid of by exposing the flesh to a freezing temperature. Hitherto we have been treating of the Red Fox. In America it is also known, being found from the 35° to the 55° parallel of latitude, and from the Atlantic seaboard to the Mississippi River ; also in Oregon and British Columbia. There is a slight dif- ference in colouring between the European and American, which some naturalists have taken advantage of to consider as just j cause for classing them as representatives of different species. In our opinion, no pretext is obtainable to deem them other- i wise than varieties. The Black Fox, so valuable for its fur, belongs to the Red Fox family, and is only a chance production ; in the same litters, occasionally, cubs both black and red having been found. The nobles of Russia, the mandarins of China, and the khans of Tartary value a Black Fox skin above all furs, and the price that a perfect pelt in prime condition fetches is fabulous. Russia, Siberia, and the colder regions of North America alone produce this valuable animal, and they are so much sought after : that but for the severity of the climate few would continue to exist. The Arctic or Blue Fox inhabits the whole extent of both continents beyond the 69° of latitude ; that is to say, Russia, Siberia, and the high regions of North America. The pelage of this species is very long, soft, and thick, and is sometimes white, frequently of a grey slate colour with a tinge of blue. It is the object of a considerable trade. This animal differs considerably from the ordinary Fox in i ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 395 its habits. It prefers naked hills to woods, and makes its burrow on their southern slope. It is not afraid of water, and fre- quently swims rivers and arms of the sea to surprise aquatic birds, or obtain their eggs. A trait which is particularly characteristic of the Blue Fox, because it is exceptional in the order of Carnivora, is its custom of migrating in crowds when game fails in a country it has hitherto occupied. After remaining absent three or four years it again returns. The female Arctic Fox brings forth seven or eight young towards the month of May. It is a lucky chance for a hunter when he can capture some of these cubs, as he rears them and sells their fur as soon as it has reached the period of its greatest beauty. Travellers relate that it is not unusual to meet in Scandinavia poor women who share their milk and care between their child and several Blue Foxes. Yarious other species of Foxes inhabit Asia and Africa. "We may particularly cite the Fennec, the smallest of its kind ; to its enormous ears it owes its extreme acuteness of hearing. It is found in the Algerian Sahara, Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, and Dongola. Among the Foxes of the New World the two principal noticeable species are the Grey and Cross or Kit Foxes. The first inhabits North America. Its fur, although less esteemed than that of the Arctic Fox, is nevertheless valuable. The second variety is distributed over the United States and Paraguay. It is a venturesome, courageous little animal ; during the night it will approach the bivouacs of travellers and gnaw their leather trap- pings, or steal anything edible lying around the encampment. Dog Genus. — All the Carnivora of the Dog kind have the pupil round, and not slit vertically, as with the Foxes. They are sociable, and collect in numerous troops to attack their prey, or defend their lives against more powerful animals. In a domestic state they all, without exception, bark ; in a wild state, on the con- trary, they howl, — though during the moments when they are rapidly pursuing their prey they give vent to their feelings in quick successive barks, designated by sportsmen “ giving tongue.” Three distinct divisions are found in this family : these are the Jackal, the Wolf, and the Dog properly so-called. 396 MAMMALIA. Jackal. — This Carnivore, five or six varieties of which are known, is common to the whole of Africa, all the warm regions of Asia, and to portions of Southern Europe. It is about the same length as the Fox, but stands a little taller. Its coat is of a greyish- yellow colour above, and white beneath ; its tail is tipped with black at the extremity. Jackals (Fig. 152) live together in troops, which are some- times composed of more than a hundred individuals. Although Tig. 152. — Jackals ( Cams aureus, Linn.). their eyes are adapted for diurnal vision, they usually sleep during the day, and do not go abroad until night to seek their food. To keep together they are constantly howling, and their voice is sad, loud, and unmusical. Their voracity and audacity are unparal- leled. They enter habitations, when opportunity presents itself, , and sweep off everything eatable they can reach ; devouring even i boots, Horse harness, and other articles made of leather. In the desert they follow the caravans, prowl all night around their encampment, and endeavour to carry off anything chance may OEDEE OE CAENIYOEA. 397 throw in their way. After the start of the caravan they rush upon the deserted halting-place, greedily fighting for all the refuse. Lastly, like the Hyenas, they disinter the dead. To protect graves from their outrages, the inhabitants are obliged to cover them with large stones and prickly bushes. Nor do the Jackals limit themselves to these means of existence, but kill as food a quantity of small Mammals, and unite to hunt the Antelope, Gazelle, &c. When numerous enough, they are not afraid to attack Oxen and Horses. With regard to Man, they fear him, if one may judge by their timid movements when suddenly thrown in his presence. The stories of Women and Children having been devoured by Jackals are, therefore, pure fabrications. Another fable is that which assigns the Jackal the duties of being the Lion’s purveyor. The ancients said that the Jackal always went before the Lion to discover and give it notice of prey, and that the King of Beasts recognised these good offices, and consigned to it, in return, the remains of the meal. This story, taken by Aristotle from an Indian apologue, was borrowed from the ancient writer by the naturalists of the eighteenth century, during which time it enjoyed a certain amount of favour, although it absolutely rested on nothing. The J ackal can be perfectly tamed.* Taken young, it is both docile and playful, and knows well its master, also those about it, and readily attaches itself to strangers. But it is timid and capricious, and often passes from one extreme of temper to the other without any apparent cause. In this way it has much of the Dog’s character, which it resembles physically, and is said to breed with. This is the reason why it has been maintained, and with good grounds, that the Jackal is the origin and stock of all the breeds of the Domestic Dog now existing. Naturalists have not always been of this opinion. Fr. Cuvier opposed the theory by referring to the disagreeable odour emitted by the Jackal; and adds that there is nothing to * I possessed a Jackal at Gibraltar that was quite as tame as a Dog ; to keep it out of mischief it was permitted to go about coupled to an old and very wise Poodle. However, getting loose, it made an onslaught on the Quartermaster’s Turkeys, and destroyed the whole of them. Some ill-natured person afterwards poisoned it. — Ed. 398 MAMMALIA. authorise the supposition that domesticity would change the animal so as to cause it to lose this smell. It might be replied, that the odour is an accidental circumstance, and is due to the putrid flesh on which the Jackal feeds ; at any rate, that it dis- appears in the tamed animal in the second or third generation. Nevertheless, it is difficult to affirm anything either one way or the other. The origin of different species of animals is full of obscurity, possibly never to be dissipated. Wolf ( Canis lupus). — It may be said that the Wolf is not distinguished from the Dog by any zoological characteristics ; Fig. 153. — Wolves and young. its eyes being only situated more obliquely, and a little more inclined towards the nose. Its pelage arid size vary, according to the country in which it is found. Certain Wolves measure, not including the tail, only thirty inches ; others twice that length. Its powers of enduring the effects of hunger and fatigue are extraordinary. It is found throughout the whole of Europe, excepting Great Britain and the neighbouring islands, where it has been exterminated. It also inhabits the cold and temperate regions of Asia and America. In some natural excavation, situated in a wood, the Wolf takes up its abode. From here at night it cautiously steals forth with a OEDEE OE CAENIYOEA. 399 Wolfs step, as the saying is, to prey upon all weaker animal life. The vision and hearing, hut more particularly the sense of smell in the Wolf, are very fully developed. These faculties are of great service in enabling it to obtain food and avoid danger. When suffering from hunger it loses all caution, and becomes a scourge to the farmers, and a source of danger even to Man. In broad daylight, under such circumstances, without being seen, it will draw near a flock of Sheep. Eluding the vigilance of the Dogs, it will dart forward, seize a victim that it has singled out, and bear it off with such velocity as often to defy Fig. 154.-*Wolf carrying off a Sheep. pursuit. This exploit accomplished, it returns time after time to the scene of its previous success, until destroyed or driven from the neighbourhood. When it succeeds in obtaining entrance to a sheepfold, the havoc it commits is fearful, for it makes a general massacre among the inmates. The slaughter terminated, it carries away a victim for immediate use. It afterwards takes 'a second, third, and fourth, which it conceals in different places in the neighbour- ing woods. Nor does it return to its retreat until daybreak, devoting the last moments to secreting its booty. This craving for slaughter, preceding the act of hiding the 400 MAMMALIA. carcasses, rather denotes foresight than ferocity; the Wolf is not, i therefore, the monster of cruelty pictured by Buffon. The Wolf often destroys Dogs, its most deadly enemy; and resorts to stratagems the better to accomplish its purpose. Should it see a Puppy about a farm-yard, it approaches, and attracts atten- tion by frisking and making all kinds of gambols to gain its confidence. When the youngster, seduced by these overtures, responds to them, and leaves the friendly shelter of his home, it is immediately overpowered, and carried off. Against a vigorous Dog, capable of defending itself with success, the stratagem is different. Two Wolves arrange between them- j selves the following plan : — One shows itself to the hoped-for ! victim, and endeavours to make the Dog follow its track into an ambuscade, where the second Wolf is concealed. Both sud- ! denly assail it at once, and through their combination obtain 5 an easy victory. Under ordinary circumstances the Wolf does not molest Man, but even flies from his presence. In cases of extreme hunger, on the contrary, it attacks him, looking out for an unguarded moment in order to take him unawares. If the Man is on horse- back or accompanied by a Dog, its first efforts are directed against the quadrupeds. During the winter, when the ground is covered with snow, in the great plains of Germany, in the vast steppes of Russia and Poland, Wolves are most dangerous. “Hunger drives the Wolf from the wood/’ says a proverb. Allied in immense troops they range the country in every direction, and become a terrible scourge. In those plains of Siberia that are infested by Wolves a sledge journey is far from agreeable, for frequently a band of these ferocious brutes persistently follow travellers. If the sledge stops for only a second, the Men and Horses are lost ; safety exists only in flight. The struggle on such occasions is ! fearful. The Horses, mad with terror, seem to have wings. ji The Wolves follow on their track, their eyes flashing with fire. It is a terrible situation to be placed in to behold these black spectres tearing across the surface of the white shroud of snow, thirsting for your blood. From time to time a re- ; port is heard; a Wolf falls. More audacious than the others, ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 401 the victim had tried to climb the sledge, and one of the travellers has shot it. This incident gives some advantage to the fugitives ; for the carnivorous troop halt for a few seconds to devour the body of their companion. But the end is nigh : the village or castle appears against the grey sky, and the Wolves are deprived of their anticipated prey. At other times the adventure terminates in a tragical manner : after a pursuit of some hours, the team, exhausted and incapable of progressing farther, is overtaken ; the sledge is surrounded and carried by assault : the rest may be imagined ! Certain Wolves — fortunately, they are rare — show a marked preference for human flesh. Such was the notorious animal which desolated Gevaudan, in the second half of the eighteenth century, and whose evil reputation yet survives. This animal was of enormous size (measuring about six feet from the point of the nose to the tip of the tail), and for several years defied all efforts made for its destruction. In India, where Wolves are classed among sacred animals, they levy tribute on mankind, carrying off every year numbers of children. In April or May the she Wolf brings forth five or six young, which she suckles for two months, after that time providing them with such animal food as small game. For her progeny she cherishes the most devoted affection, leaving them only when compelled, watching over their safety, and sacrificing her life in their defence. If she becomes aware that they have been disturbed in her absence, or even their hiding-place approached, she removes them at once to another locality. As soon as the young are active on their legs, which happens when they are about three months old, they are instructed to hunt and capture their prey. To put a limit to the ravages of Wolves, the kings of France organised the Louveterie , an institution which yet exists in a modified form. In the old French Court there was an office of “ Grand Louvetier.” The person who held it extended his juris- diction over all the Louvetier s in the provinces. The “Wolf- hunters ” levied a tax on each inhabitant residing within a radius of two leagues of the place in which one of these brutes hap- pened to be killed. The Revolution swept away the Louveterie , D D 402 MAMMALIA. but it was replaced in 1797 by an ordinance which directed that every three months there should be battues for the destruction of Wolves, Foxes, and other obnoxious animals, when it was decided that a bounty of fifty francs should be paid for the head of every full-grown Wolf, and twenty francs for that of a young one. This ordinance is still in force. The battues are ordered by the Prefet, on the requisition of the forest agents. The Mayors of each commune name the inhabitants who are to take part in them; and a fine of from sixteen to one hundred francs is imposed upon those who refuse to share in these measures for public safety. In 1818 the amount of bounty was lowered to fifteen francs for a female Wolf not in young, twelve francs for a male Wolf, i and six francs for a whelp. According to M. d’Houdetot, an authentic hunting authority, ; there are 1,200 Wolves annually destroyed in France, divided as follows : Mature male Wolves, 300 ; female Wolves, 200 ; whelps, j 700. Wolves are not hunted with hounds that run by scent, for : it would only be possible to overtake them with Greyhounds, j as they are endowed with great speed and endurance. The j! method generally adopted for their destruction is to post the 1 hunters around the covers which a Wolf frequents. These j[ measures being taken, the grizzly marauder is started by Blood- ! hounds, specially trained for the purpose. The Wolf dashes j past the sportsmen, either successfully running the gauntlet or getting shot. For the destruction of this animal every measure is permissible ; snares, spring-traps, pit-falls, and even poison are justifiable, — methods which would be reckoned unworthy of a sportsman if employed against a Stag, Roebuck, or Hare. Although the Dog and Wolf manifest towards each other deep and instinctive hatred, progeny resulting from a cross of the two animals has been obtained. The coupling of the Dog with the she Wolf is more rare than that of the Wolf with the bitch; although there are instances 1 of the former.* Buffon has stated that the Wolf is not capable of affection, * On this point the best authorities disagree with the Author. — Ed. OBDEB OE OaBNIYOBA. 403 and that it cannot be tamed; but in this be is wrong. For Cuvier relates the history of a Wolf that lived in the mena- gerie of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, which, after being reared by a person who bad to leave to proceed abroad, displayed more passionate affection for its master than the most devoted Dog could have shown. Aiid this is not a single, isolated ex- ample. When it is taken sufficiently young, to our knowledge it can be trained to bunt for its master’s benefit. Among the varieties of the common Wolf, it is necessary to mention the Black Wolf, which more particularly inhabits the North of Europe, and is only exceptionally found in France ; the Black Wolves of the northern Himalayas; the Dusky Wolf, and the Prairie Wolf, which lives in troops on the immense plains of North America; the Bed Wolf, which leads a solitary life on the pampas of La Plata and in the savannahs of Texas and Mexico; lastly, the Mexican Wolf, or Cayotte, and the Java Wolf. In the glacial regions of the two continents, White Wolves are found. Between the Dog, properly so-called, the Wolf, and the Jackal, the physical differences are so trifling, that it may be asked if these three types of Carnivora are not simply three varieties of the same species, instead of constituting three distinct species as the majority of naturalists maintain. Certainly, there is a wider difference between some breeds of Dogs and others — between the Mastiff and the King Charles, than there is between the Mastiff and the Wolf. And, nevertheless, the Mastiff and King Charles are considered as varieties of the Dog species, while this degree of relationship is refused to the Mastiff, Wolf, and Jackal. It therefore happens that the naturalists are reduced, in order to characterise the domestic Dog, to the assertion that it has the tail more or less curved, a peculiarity exclusively belonging to this animal. But not only is this distinction puerile ; but in many cases it is false, for tame W olves have been seen giving way to the influence of example, and becoming accus- tomed to carry their tails en trompette, like the Dogs, while many Dogs carry their tails straight. In Pointers and Setters, for instance, nothing is so unsightly, or a greater mark of bad breeding, than a curled tail. If it is admitted that the Jackal, Wolf, and Dog, are three races J)T) 2 404 MAMMALIA, derived from the same species, the question as to the origin of the domestic Dog becomes relatively easy of solution ; at least, some very plausible hypotheses may he brought to bear on it. We would then no longer say with Buffon, that our numerous varieties of the domestic Dog had sprung from a single type ; we Fig. 155 — Danish Dogs. would not seek to inquire if this type was the Wolf or Jackal, or if it had been for a long time altogether lost. It would only be necessary to state, that there existed before the appearance of Man on the face of the earth, diverse varieties of Dogs correspond- ing to some of our domestic breeds. This certitude having been ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 405 i acquired by palaeontology, it is quite natural to think that from ; all the possible combinations between the different varieties of Jackals, Wolves, and Dogs, have emanated well defined breeds, over which Man has extended his control, modifying them according to his fancy, and gradually increasing the number by successive crossings. Such is the opinion that to us appears the best founded. However this may be, it is impossible to fix the epoch in which Fig. 156. — Greyhound. the Dog became the servant of Man. The oldest traditions, the most ancient historical documents, show us the Dog reduced to a state of domesticity. Thus it may be said that the Dog forms an integral part of mankind. This is what Toussenel has well said : “ Ce qu’il y a de meilleur dans l’homme, c’est le Chien.” The Dog possesses all the qualities of intelligence and spirit. Where can we find a more certain, more constant, or more devoted 406 MAMMALIA. friendship, a more faithful memory, a stronger attachment, more sincere abnegation, a mind more loyal and frank P The Dog does not know what ingratitude is. He does not abandon his bene- factor in danger or adversity. With joy he offers to sacrifice his life for those who feed him. He pushes his devotion so far as to forget himself. He does not recall the corrections, the unkind treatment, to which he has been subjected ; he thirsts for caresses, while the indifference of those who are dear to him plunges him into deep distress. Noble creature ! the favourite of the rich, consolation of the poor, inseparable com- panion of the unfortunate; thanks to thee, the miserable in- dividual who dies alone in the midst of society, counts at least one friend at his melancholy funeral ; he does not descend alone into the cold grave, for thou comest to shed on his tomb the sincere tears of affection and regret ; and such is the excess of thy grief, that no one can tear thee from that spot where sleeps the corpse of him thou lovest ! And what intelligence ; what penetration ; what finesse is there in this admirable companion of our gladness and sorrow ! How well he can read countenances ; how skilfully he knows how to interpret the sentiments conveyed in gestures and words ! In vain you may threaten, in vain try to frighten him. Your eye betrays you ; that smile, which scarcely appears upon your lips, has unmasked your feelings, and so far from fearing and avoiding you, he comes to solicit your attention. Volumes might be written, if desirable, relating all the extra- ordinary stories of which Dogs are the heroes. Every day, in ordi- nary life, we see something of this kind, and which, although of so frequent occurrence, is none the less curious. Is it necessary to recall to memory the Dog of Ulysses, the model of fidelity ; the Dog of Montargis, the vanquisher of crime ; of Munito, the brilliant player at dominoes ? Must we mention the Newfound- land Dog and the Dog of Mount St. Bernard, both of them preservers of human life ? Is it necessary to speak of in- telligent Dogs going for provisions for their master, and assist- ing him in his duties with ability ; of the shoeblack’s Dog, trained to plant his muddy paws on the best polished boots, so as to bring more business to his master, the man of the ORDER OF CARNIVORA, 407 brush P We should never come to an end if we attempted to register all the exploits of this valuable companion of man. The Dog is subject to a terrible malady, which also attacks the Wolf — viz., hydrophobia. The most characteristic symptoms of this disease are dulness and loss of appetite, inflamed eyes, suf- Fig. 157. — Pyrenean Shepherd’s Dog. fering from an ardent thirst, yet avoiding water, not because liquids inspire it with horror, as is generally believed, but because of the pain experienced in swallowing. A more significant cha- racteristic of rabies is the change that suddenly takes place in the character of the Dog affected. It becomes indocile, sulky, and 408 MAMMALIA, expresses by a peculiar boarse melancholy cry the pain it suffers, and the nature of the deplorable disease with which it is seized. At length an indescribable state of madness is manifested by offensive acts, that mark the last stages of the malady. The animal runs here and there without purpose, biting at whatever comes in its way, — Cats, Dogs, Men, Women, or Children, in- noculating all its victims with the virus that impregnates its saliva. It is rare that it attacks its master, and it is probably Fig. 158. — Esquimaux Dogs. to avoid this misfortune that it wanders off on feeling the first symptoms of the horrible malady. The most energetic measures should be taken against rabies. Every Dog bitten should be immediately killed; and the same law should inflexibly be exercised towards every brute which has met with the same misfortune. With regard to people who may happen to be wounded by rabid animals, the injured part should be cut out and carefully cleansed with the shortest possible delay after the accident ; better ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 409 still, to deeply cauterise with a hot iron or a powerful caustic. No other efficacious remedies are known, notwithstanding all that has been said by the inventors of pretended sovereign remedies. In 1868 the public journals made a noise about a draught concocted from certain valueless plants ; this, however, was a per- Fig. 159. — Land Spaniels. fectly ridiculous remedy, resuscitated from the obsolete medical budget of some old woman, and had nothing in its favour to merit public attention save that it had been extolled by a prominent man of the period, M. de Saint-Paul, General Secretary to the Minister of the Interior. It could not be said of this remedy, that “if it did no good at any rate it could do no harm.” On the contrary, it might have 410 MAMMALIA. caused great mischief, by inducing the patient and those around him to belief in its efficacy, and thus rest in fatal security, preventing them from having recourse to proper means of treat- ment. It is a very extraordinary phenomenon that the inoculated virus should be sometimes so slow in producing its effects. A ; Man is bitten by a Dog which is apparently quite healthy. The wound is treated like an ordinary bite, or nothing is done to it. Fig. 160. — Poodle. At the end of a long period, even several months, when it is imagined that there is nothing more to be feared, the victim j is attacked with hydrophobia, and expires in. horrible agony. What is the cause of rabies ? On this point opinions are divided. It ought not to be attributed either to the great heat of summer, the rigorous colds of winter, nor yet to hunger, thirst, or the bad quality of food. For some time it was thought to be due to prolonged continence in the male ; but it has been proved that Bitches are quite as liable as Dogs to this dreaded OBDEB OF CABNIVOEA, 411 affection. Statistics prove that rabies is not more frequent during the summer than in any other season. Again, this malady is absolutely unknown in many warm countries, where Dogs never- theless enjoy perfect liberty ; for example, in Turkey, Syria, Egypt, Caffraria, at the Cape of Grood Hope, and in South America. This proves that the custom of muzzling Dogs during the summer, and at no other seasons, is not only radically wrong but barbarous, — in fact, more likely to promote than prevent this fearful ailment. Fig. 161. — Havanese Dogs. Dogs are also subject to a disease called distemper, which attacks all indiscriminately, and carries off more than one half their number ; this disorder usually accompanies the period of dentition. It is an inflammation of the respiratory passages, complicated with nervous disorder, and lasts from twenty to forty days. Any one who keeps a Dog should not hesitate a moment, when the malady appears, to place it in the hands of a veteri- nary surgeon, or some other person of long experience in the ailments of animals. Empirical remedies ought especially to he 412 MAMMALIA, guarded against, as in the majority of cases they leave behind them serious results. The period of gestation in the Dog is about sixty-three days — a little longer than in the Wolf. The puppies, which vary in number from six to twelve, are born with their eyes closed, and do not open them until they are ten days old. At two years of age they attain maturity. The Dog’s average length of life is about fifteen years. The marvellous sense of smell in this animal has led to its being Fig. 162. — Turnspits. employed in hunting. In certain countries it is even used to track 1 human beings. The companions of Pizarro and Ferdinand Cortez frequently employed Blood-hounds to capture the unfortunate natives of Peru and Mexico. Sporting Dogs may be divided into two classes — the Punning Dogs or Hounds, and Setters or Pointers. The first follow rapidly on a track or scent, giving tongue, and only stop when they have captured or lost their game. The second follow silently on the trail of game, sagaciously thread all deviations, and only cease OLDER OF CAENIYOBA. 413 advancing when tlie scent announces their proximity to the object of their search. It is then that they are said to be pointing or setting . Setters generally lie down and wait for the sports- man ; Pointers, on the other hand, stand. W ell-broken Dogs will remain in their position for many minutes. Among the Running Dogs, it is necessary to mention the Grey- hound, the Hounds of Saintonge and of Poitou, English Fox- hounds, Harriers and Beagles, Turnspits, Bull-dogs, Mastiffs, &c. Fig. 163.— Large French Water Spaniel." The principal breeds of the second class of Sporting Dogs are — Pointers, Setters, Land Spaniels, and Water Spaniels, which have given rise, through crossing, to a great number of varieties. The training of Sporting Dogs requires an amount of attention and preparation that the limits of this work will not allow us to notice. It may he remarked that it is necessary to commence when they are about four or five months old : this is called house-breaking. Their training should be discontinued at the period of distemper, which is generally towards the seventh or 414 MAMMALIA. eighth, month of their age. As a rule, until ten months old, they should not be shown game, or he trained in a steady, con- tinuous manner. Since the date when the Dog was redeemed by Man from a savage condition, its size, strength, and coat have submitted to Fig. 164.— Newfoundland Dogs. infinite variations ; a circumstance which makes it very difficult to class, in a small number of sufficiently homogeneous groups, all the races and sub-races now existing. Fr. Cuvier and Des- marets have divided all the varieties of Dogs thus — Matins, Spaniels, and Mastiffs. We will adopt this method, because it is easier to remember, though it is not without its faults. ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 415 It is among the Matins that the largest- sized Dogs are met with. We may mention the ordinary Matin ; the Great Danish Dog (Fig. 155), whose size almost equals that of the Ass, and whose progenitors were probably those redoubtable Molossian Dogs of the Epirus, so celebrated in antiquity ; the Danish Spotted Dog; the Little Danish Dog; the different varieties of Grey- hound (Fig. 156); the Pyrenean Shepherd’s Dog (Fig. 157), so affectionate and intelligent ; the Alpine Dog ; and the Dog of Mount St. Bernard. The Spaniels comprise the Wolf Dog; the Chinese Dog; the Esquimaux Dog (Fig. 158), the Siberian Dog, — the two latter being used in their habitat to draw sledges across the snow ; 416 MAMMALIA. the French and English Spaniels (Fig. 159) ; the Small Spaniel, the stock of a great number of varieties called Saloon or Lap- dogs, and which are remarkable for their diminutiveness, and often also for their ugliness, a circumstance which does not pre- vent their finding a place in the muff or on the knees of our elegantes. The principal Lap-dogs are the Cocker, King Charles, Blenheim, Small Poodle (Fig. 160), the Small White Log ot Cuba, or Havanese Log (Fig. 161), and the Lion Log. Then we come to the Turnspits, with straight and crooked legs (Fig. 162); the St. Lomingo Log; the Large Water Spaniels (Fig. Fig. 166. — Pointer. 163), the most faithful and most intelligent of all Logs; the Little Water Spaniel, Poodle, Newfoundland Log (Fig. 164) ; Stag, Fox, and Hare Hounds (Fig. 165) ; Blood-hounds, Pointers (Fig. 166), and Setters. • Among the Mastiffs are placed the Great Log, or Mastiff, of the English, an animal very courageous, robust, and well adapted for fighting ; the Thibet Mastiff, which differs but little from the former ; the Small Mastiff, the Pug ; excessively small, and now become very rare in France ; the Bull-dog (Fig. 167) ; the Terrier and Bull-Terrier (Fig. 168), a cross between the Matin and the Mastiff ; the Turkish Log, very remarkable for its almost entirely nude skin, and very improperly named, as it is really of American origin— -it was discovered by Columbus in the Antilles, ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 417 in 1492, and at a much later date passed into Eastern Europe and Africa ; lastly, the Common Cur Dog, which has no distinct characters, and is the product of all the combinations that can be brought about among different breeds wandering in the public thoroughfares. In this long nomenclature we have designedly omitted to speak of some races of Dogs which live either entirely wild, half- wild, or semi- domesticated in various parts of the globe. It is generally Fig. 167.— Bull-dogs. believed that they have sprung from individuals which had re- turned to a savage condition, but nothing certain is known in this respect. These are the Dingo, or New Holland Dog, which is very destructive to domestic animals, and even to cattle; the Dhale, or East Indian Dog, which in packs pursues Deer, Gazelles, &c., and which, when collected in troops, does not fear to accept combat with the Lion or Tiger ; the Wild Dog of Sumatra ; the Cape of Good Hope Dog ; the Maroon Dog of America ; lastly, the Crab-eating Dog, which lives in small bands in Guiana, where it chiefly subsists on Crabs and Lobsters. E E 418 MAMMALIA. Genus Hyenoidce. — We will say but little of this genus, which is composed of a single species — the Hyena Hog. The name given to this animal indicates that it has some points of resemblance with the Hyena. Indeed, like that Carni- vore, it has four digits to all its limbs, and maintains in the same state of flexion not only the hind- quarters, but also those in front, Fig. 168.— Bull-Terriers. if we are to believe Is. Geoffroy, who relates this fact after a trust- j worthy traveller. It also resembles it in its taste for carrion and dead bodies. The Hyena Hog inhabits South Africa. It is about the size of the Wolf, but not so strong as that animal. Its coat is of a deep grey colour, and irregularly speckled with spots of various colours. It has large pointed ears, and the tail long and bushy. ORDER OF CARNIVORA. 419 Although very fond of putrid flesh, the Hyenoidse do not make it their exclusive aliment ; for they also feed on living prey, such as Gazelles, Antelopes, &c. To pursue and capture these they collect in troops, which are sometimes very numerous, and under the direction of a chief, when they hunt with a unanimity and cleverness unsurpassed by the best pack of Hounds. When the game is taken they divide it equally ; hut if any of the larger Carnivore approach to take a share in the feast, all unite against the intruder. This often happens with respect to the Leopard, and even the Lion. Family of Yiverrid^:. — This family comprises Mammals which differ much from one another in their general form and external characteristics, some of them being plantigrade, others more or less digitigrade, but all having as a common feature two pairs of tubercular molar teeth in the upper jaw, and a single one in the lower. They derive their denomination from the word viverrct, the Latin name for a Ferret. The principal representatives of this group are the Mangousts, Civet, Genet, Cynogale, Ic tides, Coati, Hacoon, and Kinkajou, or Potto. Genus Mangousts {Herpestes) . — The Mangousts are small animals, found in the warmest parts of Africa and Asia. They have a low body and are vermiform in appearance, at the same time possess- ing great rapidity of movement, so that they appear rather to crawl than run along the ground. Their tail is long, and thick at the root. Their pelage, generally silky, is marked with diversely-coloured rings, which give them a chequered aspect. Their toes, five in number on all the limbs, are terminated by claws, which are variable in length and slightly retractile They have a tapering muzzle, and the tongue is covered with horny papillae. Near the external orifice of their digestive tube are situated two small pouches which secrete a musky substance. The Mangousts are semi-nocturnal ; they principally frequent marshy localities, where reptiles are abundant, on which they feed ; though they also attack the smaller mammals and birds. They likewise search for the eggs of reptiles, and such birds as build on the ground. They sometimes manage to gain access to poultry-yards, when, like Ferrets and Weasels, they put all e e 2 420 MAMMALIA. the inmates to death, only eating their brains and drinking their blood. They are wanting in intelligence, yet can be domesticated. The typical species of the genns is the Ichneumon, or Pha- raoh’s Pat, which inhabits the whole of the Nile region of Egypt. This animal measures sixteen inches in length, not including the tail, and is yery slender in figure. It has long been celebrated for destroying Crocodiles’ eggs. A fable, which obtained great credit in former times, affirms that the Ichneumon entered the bodies of these enormous Peptiles to devour their viscera. It was no doubt because of the intimate relations existing between these animals that the ancient Egyptians deified the Ichneumon at the same time as the Crocodile. The Mangues are a kind of Mangousts, which differ from all the others by their more elongated and mobile muzzle, resembling a snout. They are found on the West Coast of Africa, and especially at Sierra-Leone. Beside the Mangues must be placed the pretty little animals which have almost the same form and habits, and are natives of Madagascar ; these are the Galidse, or Galidictis of M. Coquerel, who has observed them in that island. They are easily tamed, and are used to destroy vermin. Genus Civet. — The Civets are the largest of the Yiverridae, although their size does not surpass that of the Fox. Like the Mangousts, they live on small mammals and birds ; but they have not the same preference for reptiles. For a long time they enjoyed great celebrity, owing to the perfume they fur- nish, and which bears their name. The odoriferous matter is secreted in a number of small glands, which pour it into a well-developed double pouch, situated beneath the anus, and communicating with the exterior by a longitudinal slit. Since musk and ambergris have been known, the use of Civet has been more restricted ; but in former times it was an article of large consumption. Each year Africa and India exported to Europe considerable quantities, which was used in medicine and per- fumery ; as an antispasmodic in nervous deseases it was considered valuable. To procure the perfume, the people of the East reared Civets in captivity, and by feeding them on appropriate nourishment they rendered the secretion more abundant. Birds, fowls, eggs, fish, ORDER OP CARNIYORA. 421 and rice, were the articles of diet mostly adopted. Two or three times a week the pouch was emptied by means of a spoon, and the contents were then put in a vessel hermetically closed. The males give more than the females, and this difference is still more marked at the coupling season. The odour of this product is so intense, that it remains for a long time in the skins of the animals even after they have been dressed. The skeleton even emits traces of it, after repeated washing. In certain towns of Abyssinia the Civet is reared on a very large scale, and the people live almost exclusively on the profits derived from this source. Father Poncet speaks of having seen traders at Enfrar who had more than three hundred. These animals are naturally irritable and ferocious, and they fig. 169. — African Civet ( Viverra civetta , Wood). cannot be really domesticated. Their vision being nocturnal, they sleep nearly all the day. Civets are frequently exhibited in our menageries. The Dutch used to bring them from the Indian Archipelago to rear in Holland, and thus obtain the perfume unadulterated. The Civet of Amsterdam thus acquired a great reputation. Two kinds of Civet are distinguished : the African Civet, or true Civet (Fig. 169), and the Indian Civet. The latter inhabits not only the Indian Continent, but also the neighbouring islands, such as Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Amboyna, and Celebes. It differs from the first in having its coat longer and rougher. Both have a fawn-coloured covering, marked with stripes or brown spots. 422 MAMMALIA. Genus Genetta . — The Genets are elegant animals, very closely allied to the preceding in form and habits. Their bodies are more slender, the head finer, and size notably less. Their claws are almost entirely retractile ; and their fur, which is speckled with black spots on a pale fawn-coloured ground, has a very pretty appearance, and is an object of considerable trade. The Genets emit, like the Civets, a musky odour, but their secretion is so trifling as to make it not worth collecting. It frequents the borders of streams, and the neighbourhood of springs. One species is found in certain parts of Western and Southern Europe ; this is the Genet vulgaris (Fig. 169), common enough in the South of France, and chiefly in the vicinity of Perpignan. Fig. 170. — The Genet {Genetta vulgaris, Linn.). The other species belong to Africa, Madagascar, and Southern Asia, as well as to the Indian Archipelago. We may add to the Civets and Genets the Paradoxures (Fig. 171), animals belonging to India and the neighbouring islands, and which are about the size of a cat. They climb trees, and feed both on animal and vegetable substances. That which Fr. Cuvier examined at the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes had the tail constantly rolled up, and always on the same side; for this reason he gave it the name of Paradoxure , being desirous of indicating that this animal had an extraordinary or paradoxical tail ! Works on Natural History enumerate numerous species of Paradoxures, Genus Cynogale . — The Cynogale is the representative of the Otter among Yiverridse. Like that animal, it has palmated feet, OEDEE OF CAENIYOEA. 423 though not so greatly developed, and essentially aquatic habits. Its body is elongated, it stands low, and its tail is of medium length; in size it is about equal to the Zibetha. It was brought from Borneo by Mr. Ben net, ; until the present time it has not been found elsewhere. Germs Ictides. — The Ictides are animals belonging to Java and Sumatra; they have tufts of long hair growing on their ears, giving them a very singular appearance. They use their long prehensile tails in climbing trees. Only one species is known, and this is entirely black, with the exception of some grey spots on the face and limbs. Genus Coati. — The various genera of Viverridse that we have just passed in review are all peculiar to the Old World ; the genus Fig. 171. — Paradoxurus (F. Cuv.)., Coati belongs to America. The Coatis inhabit the warm portions of the JSTew World — Mexico, Columbia, Peru, Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay. Their collective characteristics permit them to be readily recognised. They have a narrow head, terminating in a salient, mobile muzzle, like that of the Manguls ; and, in addition, their tongue is soft and extensible. Their mode of progression, which is plantigrade, gives to all their movements an appearance of clumsiness. Their claws are very strong, and serve to carry food to the mouth. The Coati (Fig. . 172) is about the size of the domestic Cat, and exhales a disagreeable odour ; its fur is harsh, dry, and of no value. The Coatis easily climb trees, descending, head downwards, without the slightest difficulty. Their alimentary regime is com- posed of small mammals, birds, eggs, insects, and fruits. Their 424 MAMMALIA. best developed sense is that of smell, and it is by it that they principally obtain their prey. Of a gentle disposition, they very soon become familiarised. One which MM. Quoy and Gaimard kept for some time, on board the ship JJranie , exhibited great attachment to those who gave it food or paid it attention. It abandoned its nocturnal habits, and soon became accustomed to the noise and movement of the ship. It loved to lie in the sailors’ hammocks, and was very angry when driven out. It ate everything indifferently, even to bread steeped in wine or brandy. It pursued and caught the Mice and Rats very adroitly. Genus Racoon. — Like the Coatis, the Racoons belong to America ; they inhabit the north and south of that part of the world. They have a certain analogy in form and habits with the Badger ; they are, however, not so awkward. The head is very developed in the frontal portion, and terminates in a tapering, inflexible muzzle ; the paws rest entirely on the ground in pro- # ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 425 gression, and are armed with strong and somewhat sharp nails ; the pelage is abundant, and the tail bushy. Racoons are omnivorous, though vegetable substances predomi- nate in their alimentation. Roots and fallen fruit form the staple of their nourishment. They climb trees to gather eggs, and even to capture young birds in the nest. Two species of the Racoon are known : the Common Racoon (Fig. 173) is distributed over North America, from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada. It is easily tamed, and makes a capital pet, although rather mischievous in its proclivities. The boatmen of the Ohio and Mississippi teach them many tricks, and after- Fig. 173. — Common Eacoon ( Procyon lotor). wards exhibit them to public curiosity. The Crab- eating Racoon is also a native of America. Crabs and other shell-fish, as may he imagined from its name, are its principal support. It is slimmer and more active than the former. The Kinkajou, or Potto ( Cercoleptes caudivolvus , F. Cuv.). — Uncertainty has been felt for some considerable time as to the place which ought to he assigned to this genus in the zoological series. Some naturalists have placed it in the Quadrumanous Order, and others have created for it a special family among the Carnivora, desiring thus to show that they considered it something intermediate between the two above-named Orders. No hesita- tion, however, ought to he felt in classing it among the Viverridse Family, to which it manifests undoubted affinity. It must he confessed that the Kinkajou bears some resemblance to certain species of Monkeys, especially to the Sapajous, its head being nearly the same shape, and its tail long and prehensible. Its coat, too, is of a woolly texture, which is another point of 426 MAMMALIA. agreement ; but still these characteristics are not sufficient to make it a member of the Quadrumanous Order. It is plantigrade in its tread, while its hooked claws enabling it to climb with extreme activity, it passes nearly all its life upon trees ; its size is less than that of a cat. During the daytime it sleeps, curled up like a ball ; but is not wanting in good temper, grace, or intelligence. This small animal is found in Guiana, Brazil, and Peru. The Bear Family. — The preceding family have prepared our transition from the actual Carnivora, digitigrade in their tread, and living exclusively on flesh, to the Bear Family, that is to say, to plantigrade animals, omnivorous in the highest degree. In this family the flesh-teeth are rudimentary, and the tubercular teeth are strongly developed. There are three pairs of the latter in each jaw, whilst of the former there is but one pair in the upper jaw, and none in the lower. If we recall to mind what was stated as to the dental system of the Carnivora, before we com- menced the study of these families, we should conclude, from the principles there laid down, that Bears prefer vegetable substances to any other kind of food, and that necessity alone compels them to devour flesh. And this is the fact, just what we might expect from their organisation. We must, therefore, modify any previously formed idea of the ferocity which is usually attributed to these animals. True it is, that when they are attacked they will defend themselves vigorously ; but it is radically wrong to apply the name of cruelty to self-preservation. The Bear is a large Mammal of a heavy lumpish shape, with a thick coat of fur, and almost devoid of tail. Its toes, five in number on each limb, are armed with powerful claws, which are not retractile. The sole of the foot is of an excessive width, and its whole surface touches the ground in walking. The head is wide behind, but terminates in a rather sharp muzzle. The eyes are small, brilliant, and mild ; the ears short and hairy. The brain is voluminous and grooved with numerous circumvolutions, I which denote a great amount of intelligence. In spite of their apparent heaviness, and the usual slowness of their motions, the Bear is more agile than one would fancy. It can, without difficulty, overtake a man in running ; and, generally ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 427 speaking, climbs trees with facility. Bears can stand upright on their hind legs ; and this is the attitude which they usually assume in charging an enemy ; but in this position they advance but slowly. Their strength is enormous ; with little difficulty they can crush a man to death in their arms. Tschudi, in his work on the Alpine world, records that the Alpine Bear is able to carry off a cow through the roof of a stable, and to convey a horse across a deep torrent. In eating, Bears sit down like Dogs, and taking the food up in their paws raise it to their mouths, at the same time lowering their muzzles so as to meet the food half-way. The female Bear brings forth every year two or three young ones, of which she takes tender care, and protects them against every danger, even at the peril of her own life. During the first few months of their existence she prevents the male from coming near them, for he would devour them without fail. Nor does she abandon her progeny until a fresh litter claims her attention. Like the Cat, she is in the habit of licking the cubs with her tongue to clean them. When it has plenty of food, the body of the Bear, under the skin, is enveloped with a thick layer of fat. In the olden time, certain marvellous curative qualities were attributed to this grease. At the present day these ideas are generally discarded ; but it is a well-known fact that Bears’ fat may be used instead of butter, without any injury to culinary preparations, provided that an odour which is peculiar to it is previously destroyed. This is effected by melting, at the same time throwing among it salt, afterwards sprinkling the whole with cold water. In many countries the flesh of the Bear is deemed a delicacy ; the taste of it resembles pork of a superior flavour. Lastly, its fur is utilised ; true enough, it is rough, but it is warm, and is well adapted for making travelling cloaks and carriage rugs. When caught young, the Bear may be easily tamed, and its docility of nature enables it to learn numerous amusing tricks, among others, dancing, performing somersaults, &c. It will not, however, always voluntarily exhibit its acquirements without expressing its unwillingness by deep growling ; and, as it is capricious, it sometimes gets angry when it is coerced. It is, 428 MAMMALIA. therefore, advisable not to place too much confidence in its good- nature, hut always to keep it muzzled, especially when of adult age. The vivacity of its disposition, and grotesqueness of its move- ments, may be observed at the menageries, for instance, in the Pits at Berne, the Zoological Gardens of London, and the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. In the latter establishment, the Bear, from time immemorial, has obtained the name of “ Martin/’ no one can tell why, unless that it twists about in many different postures, hows awkwardly to right and left, stands upright, and climbs a tree — the incentive being the cake with which he is tempted by some smart nursemaid or gallant soldier. These Bears, how- ever, lie under the accusation of having devoured a soldier who ventured into the pit to rob them of a cake which some children had thrown them. Bears not being partial to heat, they are more common in the northern regions of the globe, and, although they are met with in warm and temperate climates, it is generally on the lofty mountain ridges. Europe, Asia, and America, all possess various species ; but it is uncertain whether any exist in Africa. The best known varieties of Bears may be classed in the following species : — the Brown Bear of Europe, the Grizzly Bear of America, the Black Bear of America* the Syrian Bear, the White or Polar Bear, the Sloth Bear, the Malay Bear, and the Bornean Bear. The Brown or Alpine Bear (Fig. 174) has short and crooked claws ; its head is very large, and its forehead forms a very decided prominence above the eyes. There are no less than ten or eleven varieties of it, each located in some particular region of Europe and Asia, and all differing considerably both in their size and also in their coats. Its length varies from four to five feet ; some Bears, however, very much exceed these dimensions ; one, for instance, which adorns the Museum of Lausanne in Switzerland, according to Tschudi, could not have measured less than seven feet and a half. The Brown Bear generally weighs from 220 lbs. to 330 lbs. ; but some have been killed which reached 550 lbs. Its colour varies from a bright yellow to brown and grey ; white and black Bears are occasionally found in Europe, but these are but exceptional cases of albinism or melanism. OEDEE OF CAENIYOEA. 429 The Brown Bear leads a solitary life in the dark pine forests, amidst the deepest gorges, or on the highest mountain ridges. It makes its den in caverns, on clefts of the rocks, often, also, in the hollow of some giant old tree. Sometimes, too, it builds for itself a bower of branches and moss. It generally sleeps during the day, and seeks its food at night ; but this is by no means Fig. 174. — Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos). a settled habit in the animal. It feeds on the nuts of the beech, and the various descriptions of wild fruits and berries, especially those that are slightly acid ; also various seeds, vegetables, and roots. It is very fond of honey, strawberries, and grapes, and will travel many miles to procure these delicacies. An agreeable repast is also furnished it by swarms of ants, which it likes on account of their acid taste. In the lofty regions which it generally inhabits, when all these kinds of food fail, it makes its way down to some of the lower plateaux, and ravages the fields of wheat, oats, and maize. When 430 MAMMALIA. hard pushed by hunger it will not unfrequently go eight or ten leagues from its home, hut at dawn never fails to return to its own district. The Bear is well endowed with sight, hearing, and smell. If Tschudi is to he credited, before setting out on hunting ex- peditions, it invariably climbs to the top of some eminence or tree to explore the neighbourhood, both by sight and smell. It is very cautious in its nature, and hut seldom enters traps ; it inspects objects at a distance with which it is unacquainted, and will not approach them without extreme caution. If it finds a carcass, it will not feed upon it before due examination. The Bear does not become torpid during winter, as has been generally believed ; hut sleeps sometimes for several days, for the reason that its appetite is smaller in cold weather. When abroad at this season and not finding a sufficiency of vegetable sustenance, it is then that a taste for flesh takes pos- session of it, and it lays tribute on the nearest flocks of Goats and Sheep. It prefers Sheep, because the capture of them- is more easy, for the Goat’s agility is a serious obstacle to its successful pursuit. When the latter becomes its prey, the Bear generally jumps down upon it from the top of some eminence, or makes its way at night into its pen. It rarely attacks larger cattle ; still, instances are known where it has lain in wait for Cows near their drinking places, when it has sprung on the hack of one, and seizing it by the nape of the neck, continued lacerating until death ensues. In foggy weather Bears are said to be more venturesome, as they can approach the grazing- grounds with greater impunity, and with less fear of being seen by the shepherd, when, if opportunity offers, they fall upon some beast which is detached from the others, and devouring part of it, carry off the remainder. The Brown Bear will not often attack Horses, possibly on account of their agility in avoiding its assault, or greeting its approach with a volley of kicks. The Brown Bear is, in the main, an easy-tempered animal, and cruel only from necessity ; it is happy and comic in its ways, and absolutely inoffensive to man when unprovoked. It must, how- ever, be confessed that it becomes more and more carnivorous in its nature as it ages, because the taste for flesh increases in pro- ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 431 portion to the number of times the animal bas fed upon it, the appetite augmenting as it is gratified. When it is attacked and wounded, or suddenly disturbed in its sleep, or when its cubs are in any peril, the Bear becomes a dangerous foe. From the in- trepidity of its nature, and its reliance on its strength, it is ever Fig. 175.— Grizzly Bear ( Ursus horribiiis). ready to accept battle if molested. In a hand to hand contest, unless a wound is given which goes straight to its heart, all is over with the unfortunate hunter. When a Bear is once wounded but not killed, either the animal or its enemy must succumb ; and if the former succeeds in getting hold of its adversary, it is a duel to the death of the most unrelenting description. 432 One curious detail in the physiology of the Bear is the extraordi- nary smallness of the young at birth, when compared with the bulk of the parents, for they are not larger than rats. At the age of five years they are able to reproduce their kind. The dura- tion of their life has not been positively ascertained. Tschudi relates that a Bear was kept at Berne for forty-seven years, and that a female had young at the age of thirty-one years. The Collared Bear and the American Black Bear being some- what peculiar in their nature and habits, we will furnish a few details, so as to give an idea of their mode of life. The Binged, Collared, or Siberian Bear owes its name to a large white ring which traverses its shoulders and fades away on the chest. This characteristic, however, is not possessed of j any scientific value, for in youth many of this family show it more or less. The Siberian Bear is much more formidable than the European variety. In the gloomy and cold countries which it inhabits, the vegetation is altogether insufficient to satisfy its appetite ; it must therefore, from sheer necessity, fall back upon some kind of animal food. It will also feed on fish, which it catches cleverly, and on carcasses thrown on the seashore. It hunts the Beindeer, and will, even without provocation, attack man. The inhabitants of Kamtschatka wage a war of extermination against this animal. The American Black Bear, on the contrary, is naturally one of the least offensive animals. It has little taste for flesh, — even when hungry, if a choice is offered between animal food and fruit, it does not hesitate in selecting the vegetable substance. It swims well, and is fond of fish, which it catches skilfully. It seldom attacks Man, unless previously provoked by his assaults ; as a rule, it prefers seeking safety in flight. It principally makes its abode in the hollows of firs and pines, selecting in preference those holes which are the highest. Under these circumstances, the Ame- ricans capture it by setting fire to the foot of the tree. This animal is hunted with great activity, not only to put an end to its depredations in the corn-fields, but also for the sake of its flesh, fat, and fur, which latter is used for many purposes. The hams of the American Bear, when salted and smoked, have deservedly a high reputation both in the United States and Europe. The second American species, the Grizzly Bear ( JJrsus horri- OEDEE OF CAENIYOEA. 433 bilis), Fig. 175, known also as the Ferocious Bear, is a native of the slopes of the Bocky Mountains. If we may credit the accounts of travellers, the Grizzly Bear is the most formidable of all the Carnivora, not even excepting the Lion and the Tiger. It is said to delight in slaughter, and that it attacks without hesitation the immense herds of Bison which people the plains in the vicinity of its habitat. But these assertions are probably exaggerated. That the Grizzly Bear is stronger and more carni- vorous in its nature than the brown or black species is credible ; but it is highly improbable that it is possessed of the ferocity which is attributed to it. There can be no doubt that it feeds on living prey, but only, in our belief, when berries, seeds, and roots fail to afford it a sufficient sustenance.* The White or Polar Bear ( Ursus maritimus) enjoys a reputation for boldness and voracity. Doubtless, much of its ferocity is to be attributed to the barrenness of the regions which it inhabits, the absence of vegetation obliging it to attack animals to supply its craving appetite. Its domain includes all those solitudes which surround the arctic pole — Greenland, Spitzbergen, JNova Zembla, &c. Over these vast ice-fields it reigns supreme. It pursues the Walrus and the Seal, which it catches with ease, for it both swims and dives with extraordinary skill. White Bears also feed on such dead Fish, Amphibia, Cetacea, &c., as the sea throws upon the beach. In the summer time, when they betake themselves to the forests farther inland, they attack the Mammals which are natives of these regions, especially Beindeer. But notwithstanding their apparent love of flesh, they are able to subsist upon vegetable diet. Most mariners who have been detained by the ice in the polar seas have had frequent encounters with White Bears. Instances have been known in which they pursued them into their vessels, even endeavouring to make their way into cabins at night through the port-holes. The White Bear is terrible in its attack. Accustomed, as it is, to meet with little or no resistance, and not even suspecting * The courage, vitality, and strength of this animal cannot he over estimated. Its size is enormous ; a specimen exhibited in the United States was said to weigh 2,000 lbs.— Ed. F F 4 U MAMMALIA. danger, it rushes upon Man with a blind fury and determination too often fatal in their results. (Fig. 176.) It is not an uncommon thing for White Bears to drift out to sea on floating icebergs, when they become reduced to the most frightful distress from hunger. Fatally confined to their icy raft, and utterly devoid of all means of subsistence, they ultimately attack and devour one another. Some of these famished Bears ORDER OE CARNIVORA. 435 have been drifted to the coasts of Iceland and even Norway. They are then indeed terrible, and make an indiscriminate rush on anything before them, be it Man or brute. Circumstances of this kind have certainly contributed to form the reputation they have acquired of untameable ferocity. Living in the midst of perpetual ice, the White Bear naturally dreads heat. Pallas, who observed one that was kept captive at Kranojack, in Siberia, says that it could never remain long in its house. Although the climate there is very inclement, it took a constant delight in rolling in the snow. The White Bears in Fig. 177.— Malay Bear ( Ursus Malay anus, Raffles). the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, suffer so much from the heat of summer, that it is impossible to keep them alive for any length- ened period. Cuvier, however, says that one lived there for fifteen years, owing to the care that was taken, both in winter and summer, to refresh it by throwing over its body sixty to eighty pails of water daily. The White Bear never becomes familiar with Man. When in f f 2 436 MAMMALIA. a state of captivity it always remains wild and taciturn, and shows itself alike incapable of attachment or domestication. The Labiated or Sloth Bear is characterised by extensible lips and a tongue of remarkable length. It is a native of India, and feeds only on vegetables. This animal submits to training, and can be taught various exercises. Lastly, the Bornean and Malay Bears (Fig. 177), often confused, are a much smaller species than any of the preceding. They are natives of Malacca and the Bornean Isles. They climb trees readily, and feed chiefly on fruit. They are easily tamed, and soon learn numerous tricks. ORDER OF RODENTIA. This Order is one of the most extensive in the class of Mammals, and includes certain animals of small or moderate size, the dis- tinctive characteristic of which is, that they possess only two kinds of teeth — incisors and molars. The incisors, two in number, in front of each jaw, are very remarkable. Their office is to cut, as with shears, roots and branches, and they are wonderfully constructed for attaining this result. These teeth are long, curved, and stout, and being covered with enamel on their front face only, they wear away more behind than in front, and, by rubbing one against the other, naturally form a bevelled edge. This is a very advantageous arrangement, as thus the teeth always present a sharp-cutting and very hard edge, well adapted for sawing through or gnawing tough substances. By a phenomenon which can hardly excite too much admiration, the incisors always maintain the same length, notwithstanding their continual wear. The fact is, that they have no roots, and grow from the base in the same proportion as they are worn away at the top. It is thus explained why it is that when one of the incisors happens to break, the one opposite to it grows to an indefinite extent and becomes distorted in shape. The molars are separated from the incisors by an empty space. In each jaw there are never less than three pairs nor more than six pairs of molar teeth. In most cases, the enamel forms wrinkles on their surface of varied shapes, which gives them an uneven appearance, and causes them to act as a kind of rasp, which much facilitates mastication. Animals of the Bodent Order feed on seeds, fruit, leaves, and grasses, occasionally on roots and bark. Some of them, however, such as Bats, are omnivorous, and will eat even putrefied flesh ; 438 MAMMALIA. but these form exceptions. The Rodents^ therefore, like all herbivorous animals, have the intestinal canal of great length. In the Guinea-pig it measures nearly 10 feet ; in the domestic Rabbit, 15 feet 2 inches ; in the Agouti, 17 feet 10 inches ; in the Porcu- pine, 25 feet. Rodents differ much in form and size, and their organs of locomotion are as variously constituted. They are adapted, according to the genus, either for running, jumping, climbing, flying, or swimming. Their toes are generally five in number, and touch the ground with the extremities only — a cir- cumstance which is favourable to agility. They are armed with sharp claws, enabling them to climb trees or to burrow in the earth. The greater number of Rodents have their bodies covered with fine, soft, and sometimes prettily- coloured hair, which man has turned to advantage. The small Grey Squirrel and the Chinchilla both furnish furs of value ; and the coats of the Beaver, the Hare, and the Rabbit, are used in several of our manufactures. The Rodents do not, like the other Orders of Mammals, admit of any great divisions, based on natural characteristics which are readily and clearly marked. When such have been adopted by naturalists, they have been founded on nothing but certain subtle features of organisation. We shall not, therefore, in this case, classify them in families ; but confine ourselves to describing the genera one after the other, grouping under a common head those which are connected together by certain actual affinities. The order of Rodents commences with a very numerous group, that of the Rat genus, which includes, besides the Rat proper, the Field Rats and Mice, the Ondatras, Musquash, or Musk Rats, the Hamster Rats, the Dormice, and the Jerboa Rats. All these animals have a kind of family likeness to one another, and differ but little in the eyes of the vulgar, who mix them all up under the same general denominations. These form the Mus species of the naturalists (from Mus, Mouse or Rat). Rats. — Rats proper are characterised by an oblong-shaped head, furnished with stiff feelers on each side of the Inuzzle ; by an elongated body terminated by a tail equal to it in length, and almost bare, scaly, cylindrical, and tapering down to the tip. They have but four toes on the fore feet, and the number of their teats varies from four to twelve. They are usually of a tawny or brown colour. ORDER OE RODENTIA. 439 These animals are very numerous ; for the females bring forth several times a year litters composed of ten to twelve young, which are soon able to reproduce. The males are polygamous, and take no part whatever in the rearing of their progeny. Eats are the most destructive of all Eodents ; for although their principal food is formed of seeds and roots, they are, as we have said, omnivorous. They make their abode in the culti- vated fields, gardens, and plantations, each locality suffering by their residence. Houses, barns, hay-sheds, provision- stores, sewers, slaughter-houses, butchers’ shops, restaurants, &c., are, however, their favourite abodes. When a colony of Eats is established in any locality, and no longer find a sufficient supply of food, it emigrates to a new place of residence. They sometimes, on such occasions, accomplish long journeys. Streams, and even the widest rivers cannot then stop them. Onward appears to be their watchword, until they meet with a neighbourhood suited to their requirements. One word, however, we have to say in their favour, on these occasions they exhibit a strong spirit of fellowship, for, far from abandoning the old and infirm, they come to their assistance, obviating as much as possible all the difficulties that surround their situation. Dr. Franklin states that he has seen an old Eat, deprived of sight, holding in its mouth the end of a twig, the other end of which was grasped by a comrade, who thus led the unfortunate. So rapid is the increase of Eats, that they wTould be a perfect scourge to humanity, if it were not for various and powerful causes of destruction which limit their multiplication. Hot only do Owls,’ Buzzards, and other birds of prey, make slaughter among them, but even they destroy and devour one another, either for the possession of the females, or (which is the more general case) in consequence of the scarcity of subsistence. With regard to this point, Parent-Duchatelet relates the following fact, which Magendie witnessed. The celebrated physi- ologist had caused a dozen Brown Eats to be shut up in a box. When he arrived home he found only three left ; these had devoured the nine others, and a few bones and other scattered remains were all that attested of the victims’ existence. In cities it is highly necessary that steps should be taken to limit the increase of these troublesome animals ; but in spite of 440 MAMMALIA. their incessant destruction, Eats do not appear to diminish, hut rather the reverse. In consequence of their disgusting habits, and the damage which they cause, Eats invariably inspire all with repugnance, so that we never think of taming them, and but rarely contemplate the possibility of making pets of them. This, however, would be by no means an impossibility. In the public places of Paris, a mountebank may often be seen exhibiting a troop of performing Eats. They recognise the voice of their master, and execute various tricks at his command, such as jumping in and out of a basket, bowing to the company, &c. ; ultimately, at the call of their owner, they come and nestle in his bosom between his waistcoat and shirt. Fig. 178. — Black Bat (Mus rattus). The Chevalier de Latude, celebrated by his lengthened captivity in the Bastille, was much inconvenienced in his dungeon by Eats, which, during his sleep, were in the habit of running over his face, and sometimes even biting him. Binding himself unable to drive them away, he determined to cultivate the friendship of these troublesome neighbours. He began by enticing one with some bread, taking care not to startle it by any sudden movement. At the end of three days, the animal had become so tame, that it would feed out of his hand. The most difficult part of his ORDER OE RODENTIA. 441 task was now over. The first Rat brought others, which did not manifest any more timidity than their leader ; and in less than fifteen days the company consisted of ten Rats, each of which received a name. When Latude called to them, they would run after him and allow themselves to be handled without fear, appearing to be pleased when scratched under the neck ; but they always objected to be touched upon the back. “ They used to come and eat out of my plate,” said the unfortunate captive ; “ but I found that this licence was inadmissible, so, in order to avoid their uncleanly habits, I was forced to lay another cover at table for them.” At the end of a year this family of Rats reckoned twenty- six members. Both Cats and Dogs are natural enemies of the Rat ; yet these animals, apparently so irreconcilable, may be trained to live together. Dr. Franklin was in possession of a White Rat, which was much attached to him, and kept on very good terms with a Dog of the terrier breed. The Dog and Rat were in the habit of amusing themselves together in the garden ; they would drink milk side by side from the same saucer, and share like brothers any tit-bits that fell in their way, either from the liberality of their master or the plunderings of the Rat, which never scrupled to climb upon the table and carry off, unless prevented, sugar, pastry, or cheese. If a stranger entered the room, Scugg (which was the name of the Rat) used to retire into a corner, and place itself under the protection of friend Flora, the Dog, frho would bark furiously until the pacific intentions of the newcomer had become evident. It was curious to see Scugg sleeping in front of the fire between Flora’s paws. In consequence of vexation at being sepa- rated from its master, the Rat became ill. At length the Doctor returned. He caressed the affectionate animal, and having with some difficulty withdrawn it from his bosom, put it back into its cage. The next morning it was found dead. In Rats as well as men, joy sometimes kills. The Rat tribe are distributed all over the earth. They seem to adapt themselves to all climates, and many of the species are cosmopolitan. This may be easily explained, by the fact that all vessels have a number on board, and that thus they pass from one hemisphere to another. 442 MAMMALIA. We shall now state the principal species of the genus, beginning with those of Europe. In the first place, we have the Black Bat, and Brown, or Norway, Bat. The Black Bat (Fig. 178) is about eight inches long, the tail not included. It is originally from Asia Minor, and is ceasing to be an inhabitant of Europe, for it is gradually retiring before the Brown Bat, the largest, the most malicious, and the most vora- i cious of all the family, and which wages a war of extermination upon the Black Bat. Thus it is that in England the Black Bat has become excessively rare. Fr. Cuvier, in opposition to general Fig. 179. — Brown, or Norway Bat (Mus decumanus) . belief, states that these two varieties of Bats live together on the best of terms wherever there is plenty of food. The Brown Bat (Fig. 179) did not exist in Europe until the middle of the eighteenth century, and appears to have been brought in ships from India. Some Brown Bats attain eleven inches in length, and are able to defend themselves against a Cat. They have taken the place of the Black Bat in almost all our large cities. The Wood-Mouse makes its abode in woods ; during the winter, it takes refuge in corn-ricks, and sometimes it even frequents dwellings. Its length varies from four to five inches. The Common Mouse is slightly larger than the Field-Mouse ; ORDER OF RODENTIA. 443 it is not necessary to describe its babits, as they are so well known. This little animal is a troublesome guest in our houses, and even makes its way into movable furniture. Although it is timid and inoffensive, it is a cause of fright to children and weak- minded persons. Terror, however, gives way to curiosity when the Mouse belongs to the white variety, for White Mice are frequently made pets of. The Mouse does not inhabit houses exclusively ; it is likewise found in gardens and fields. This species is believed originally to be indigenous to Europe ; but it is now plentiful everywhere. The Dwarf or Harvest Mouse (Fig. 181) is the smallest, the most graceful, at the same time the prettiest of all the genus. Fig. 180. — Common Mouse (Mus musculus) . Its size is not much more than half that of the Common Mouse. Its coat is tawny on the back, with a brighter shade on the flanks ; while the lower part of the head, the chest, and the belly, is white, soft, and silky. Its habits are very interesting. The receptacle which it constructs for the reception of its progeny is a marvel of architectural skill. This delicate piece of work bears considerable resemblance to the nests of the Tomtit. It is spherical in shape, and is no larger than the small balls played with by children. Being composed of grass and leaves artisti- cally interwoven, it is skilfully poised at the intersection of two or three straws of grain, bound together about half-way up. 441 MAMMALIA. In this cradle the mother deposits seven or eight young ones ; ; but the question may be asked, how she manages to suckle || them, for the narrowness of the structure will not allow her to install herself in the midst of her brood. The opening of their i dwelling is so skilfully concealed, that extreme attention is some- times necessary to discover it. The female can climb up to her ; nest with the greatest ease, and descends with similar facility, j Fig. 181. — Harvest Mouse {Micromys minutus). winding her tail round a straw and sliding down rapidly. In winter-time, the Harvest Mouse takes refuge in corn or hay-ricks, or scratches out a burrow, which it lines with wool, hair, or other j soft substances. Those we have named above are the principal European species. The other parts of the world have also a few varieties which are peculiar to them. The most important are, in Africa, the Nile ORDER OF RODENTIA. 445 Rat, the Barbary Rat, and the Alexandrian Rat ; in Asia, the Giant Rat, the Caraco Rat, and the Perchal Rat ; in Australia, the Hydromys or Aquatic Rat, which is about the size of the Brown Rat, and lives in the water ; in America, the Brazilian Rat, and the Muscary Rat, larger than the Brown Rat, which occasions immense havoc in the plantations in the West Indies. The Field-Mouse Genus. — In contradistinction to the preceding genus, which have, generally speaking, the tail bare, and as long as the body, this appendage in the Field-Mouse genus is much shorter and hairy. This is the only important characteristic distinguishing the two genera. Among this genus may be found some very interesting, but also very mischievous species. As they make their abode in the woods and fields, and, besides, breed with prodigious rapidity, they sometimes become a serious plague to agriculture, and farmers do their best to exterminate them. The Common or Small Field-Mouse (Fig. 182) is found all over Europe, except in Italy; it is also met with in Siberia. It is about the size of the Common Mouse, and makes its abode in some raised bank, where it hollows out irregular passages, all meeting in one chamber. In this hole, on a bed of dry grass, the female gives birth to from eight to twelve little ones three or four times a year. We may judge by this how rapidly they multiply, and the extent of destruction to agricultural pro- duce which results from them. Whole districts have been reduced to destitution by this scourge. In 1816 and 1817 the one department of La Yendee experienced a loss estimated at £120,000, caused entirely by these animals. They were ulti- mately got rid of by poison. The Economic Mouse differs but little from the species just named, except that it is larger. It is a native of Siberia, between Daouria and Kamtschatka. The name which is given it alludes to one of its characteristic habits — that of hoarding up, during the fine weather, provisions for the winter. The labours and foresight of this puny creature are a constant source of admiration to the lovers of nature. Its domicile is of a somewhat complicated character, consisting of a principal chamber twelve inches in diameter, and about four inches high, from whence spring numerous little tunnels tending in every direction, and communicating with 446 MAMMALIA. the surface of the ground by apertures about an inch in diameter, and placed at a suitable distance from each other. Three or four winding passages, penetrating still farther into the depth of the ground, lead on to an equal number of comparatively spacious storehouses, where the “people of the house,” that is, the male and female, hoard up roots of all kinds, which have been pre- viously scraped and dried in the sun, and which are arranged in separate heaps, according to the nature of each. If, in spite of all these precautions, the provisions get damp, the little animals bring Tig. 182. — Campagnol, or Short-tailed Field-Mouse ( Arvicola arvahs). them up again into the open air, and dry them a second time. Looking at these actions, so full of intelligence and reason, can we in all seriousness speak of the mere instinct of animals P The quantity of food which the Economic Mouse stores up during the time of plenty is sometimes considerable ; for it occasionally reaches as much as fifty pounds weight, and in such case forms a resource for the miserable, half- starved inhabitants of eastern Siberia. The natives of this country hunt out these burrows to plunder them, but they always take care to leave a little of the hoard behind, so as not to reduce the industrious collectors to starvation. Like the Lemmings, of which we shall shortly speak, the Economic Mice are in the habit of migrating. United in large OEDEE OF EODENTIA. 447 troops, in tlie spring of some years they go straight ahead, crossing every obstacle — rivers, arms of the sea, and mountains, leaving behind them numbers of stragglers and exhausted victims, who fall a prey to the crowd of carnivorous animals which follow in their rear. After their journey they are so fatigued that they can scarcely move. At the beginning of winter they return to their homes, and the natives of Kamtschatka make quite a festival in honour of their arrival. The Water Rat (. Arvicola amphibius) is another species of this genus, about the size of the Black Rat, and frequents the edges of streams. It swims with ease, and feeds on roots and various aquatic plants. It digs a burrow in the river-bank, of no great depth, but provided with several holes for egress. It is found all over Europe, in Asia, and also, it is said, in America. There are various other species of this genus, but an account of them would not furnish us with any fresh peculiarities. Lemming. — The Lemmings, the most curious species of this group, are natives of the mountains of Lapland, where they feed on mosses and lichens. Their tail, paws, and claws are all very short. They are about the size of the Rat, and their coat, variegated with black, yellow, and white, is very pretty. During during daytime they creep into their burrows to enjoy sleep, but the night they are very active. When they are attacked they defend themselves both with their teeth and claws, and if an attempt is made to catch hold of them, they utter shrill cries. At very irregular dates the Lemmings migrate in immense numbers, and make their way towards the south in crowded columns. It seems as if they were drawn on by some irresistible power towards a certain fixed point, so straight is the character of their march. They never go round any obstacle, except when it is absolutely impossible to surmount it ; and then, as soon as the impediment is passed, they again take their former direction. If a large rick of hay happens to stand in their path, they bore right into it, and make a thoroughfare through it. If a boat is moored in a river, and thus crosses their direct road, they will climb over it, and take to swimming again on the other side of it. They only travel at night and in the early morning. Woe be to the field in which they make their halting-place, for it will be left completely bare. 448 MAMMALIA. These animals thus make their way as far sometimes as Ger- many. Incalculable numbers of them perish during the journeys,, and scarcely a hundredth part ever live to return. Much discussion has taken place as to the cause which induces the Lemmings, as well as the Hamsters, to undertake these migrations. It has been sometimes asserted that they foresee a hard winter, and that they make these journeys to avoid it. But the more probable supposition is that these changes of abode are owing to a superabundance in their numbers, which naturally leads to a deficiency in the means of subsistence. Fig. 183. — Lemming ( Hypudoeus norvegicus). Musquash, or Mush- Rats — Musquash (Fig. 184) are much larger than Bats, their size being equal to that of a small Babbit. They are plentiful all over North America, especially in Canada, and are thoroughly adapted for an aquatic or amphibious life. Their hind-feet are semi-webbed, and each toe is fringed with straight hair; added to this, the tail, which is almost as long as the body, is flattened, and covered with scales. They possess a gland which secretes a milky fluid of a pene- trating musky odour ; hence the name Musk-Bats is frequently given them. These animals have a highly developed constructive genius. In this they resemble the Beaver, a species which we shall soon consider ; for they combine to build villages, in which they find a safe refuge against cold, and the attacks of their enemies. ORDER OE. RODENTIA. 449 When Musk-Eats form a colony, they select a lake or quiet river, free from cliffs, rapids, or falls. Their houses externally are in the shape of a dome, and are composed of rushes or reeds firmly interwoven, with the interstices filled up with clay. A final layer of twisted rushes covers this facing, making the total thick- ness of the walls about thirteen inches. Against floods, and the possible invasion of their domicile by water, due precautions are taken by arranging a series of steps inside. This animal must, also, be endowed with very remarkable powers of observation, for the upper steps are always above water level, except in the case of extraordinary floods. The size of their huts varies according to the number of Fig. 184. — Musquash, or Musk-Rat ( Fiber zibethicus ). inhabitants. They are, in general, about two to two and a half feet in diameter inside, and are calculated to shelter seven or eight animals ; but occasionally they are found much more spacious. These dwellings are sometimes crowded together in considerable numbers. When thus collected they present the appearance of numerous bundles of hay resting upon the surface of the water. In these abodes the animals shut themselves up during the cold months. In the early days of spring, the Musk-Eats emerge from their subterranean dwellings, and spread over the country in couples. When the females are pregnant they return to their houses, G G 450 MAMMALIA. but without the males, who continue to wander about. At the end of summer, both males and females again unite in greater or less numbers and proceed to form a new colony, for these animals never occupy the same dwellings two years running. The Hamster Genus. — The Hamsters are about the size of the Black Rat ; but the body is more thick- set, and the tail much shorter. They are specially characterised by the large bags in the sides of the cheek, and extending as far back as the shoulder behind the head. Their coat is a russet- grey on the upper part of the body, and black or brown underneath, scattered over with white and yellow spots. Their fur is valued. Hamsters, which are also called German Marmots and Rye- Pigs (Fig. 185), are very plentiful in Siberia, Russia, Poland, and all over Germany. Alsace is the only province in France in which they are found. Their habits resemble very much those of the Economic Rat ; but instead of being, like the latter animal, a source of profit to the natives of the country which they inhabit, they associate with them devastation and ruin. Cultivated fields are the usual scene of their depredations ; for there they find an abundance of their favourite food. . Occasionally they destroy some of the weaker Rodents, such as Mice, Field- Mice, &c. Burrows, composed of a chamber lined with straw, which serves as their lodging, and various storehouses, are excavated by them, three or four feet under ground. These communicate with one another, while two runs afford access, one of which is oblique and winding, and is used by the animal in ordinary circumstances ; the other, which is vertical, is reserved for cases of pressing necessity. In the storehouses, the Hamster hoards up seeds of all kinds — wheat, rye, beans, peas, vetches, linseed, &c. Morning, evening, and night, it crams its cheek-pouches with grain, after having separated it from the husk; and carrying it into the subterranean dwelling, there deposits it. It is said that this animal carries the spirit of order to such an extent as to arrange in separate chambers the various seeds it stores. The quantity which the Hamster thus stores up is some- times prodigious. Cases have been knowm where as much as one hundred and twenty pounds weight has been taken from a single burrow. These figures may give some idea of the ravages ORDER OE RODENTIA* 451 which are to be dreaded from an animal, tbe multiplication of which is exceedingly rapid. The females produce young three or four times a year : the first litter is only three or four in number, but the subsequent ones are from six to nine, sometimes, indeed, foom fifteen to eighteen. At one time, the number of these Rodents became so great in parts of Germany, that the Government of Gotha offered a pre- mium for their destruction : during one year eighty thousand were killed in that neighbourhood. From what we have said it may be easily imagined that Hamsters are not looked upon by the peasants with much favour, Fig. 185. — Hamster ( Cricetus frumentarius). but are pursued with the utmost animosity, both for the purpose of destroying them, and also for recovering their misappropriated property. The burrow of the Hamster is not difficult to find, and is recognised by observing near an obliquely tending hole, a little mound resulting from the mould scratched out by the animal. To destroy them the peasants spread poison-balls about the fields ; but this plan might lead to very serious consequences, and ought to be absolutely forbidden. In the middle of autumn the Hamster retires into his strong- hold, and, closing up all the avenues, shuts itself up there until spring. During this interval it consumes the provisions which g g 2 452" MAMMALIA. have been stored up in reserve, and becomes very fat. If the temperature becomes very low it falls into a lethargic sleep. The Dormouse Genus.- — Dormice are pretty little animals, which remind one of Squirrels in their habits and external characteristics They are sharp-looking, have a soft and thick coat, a long and bushy tail, and are rapid in movement. Their muzzle is adorned with a beautiful pair of moustachios, or feelers. They climb with great ease, for they are possessed of curved and sharp claws, which ; enable them to cling to any object. They pass all their lives I on trees, and feed chiefly on fruit and wild berries ; nevertheless, they will also eat the eggs of small birds, and perhaps even j Fig. 186. — Lerot, or Garden Dormouse (Myoxus quercinus). the birds themselves. The evening and night are the times when they go in quest of food; during day they sleep, curled up in beds of moss, placed in the hollow of a tree, or in the crevice of some wall or rock. Hence comes the proverb, “As idle as a Dormouse.” It is also worthy of remark, that their places of 1 shelter are almost always turned towards the south. In these retreats they rear their families, and pass the winter j in a state of torpor, hibernation being a decided condition of their nature. If the temperature should chance to rise during their | winter sleep, they wake up and feed upon the fruit which they j have stored during the summer. A small species, the Muscardine, takes the most ingenious precautions to guard itself from cold, or ORDER OF RODENTIA. 453 I from any inquisitive curiosity, during the time it is torpid, viz., ; it envelopes itself in dry grass and moss, forming them into a skilfully- constructed hollow ball, the centre of which it occupies. This genus has its representatives in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The European species comprises the Dormouse proper, the Garden Dormouse, and the Muscardine. The Dormouse proper (Fig. 186) is less in size than the Black Bat ; while the Muscardine is not larger than a Mouse. These two species live in the forests of Central and Southern Europe ; but the Garden Dormouse prefers the vicinity of in- habited places. They often take up their abode in parks, gardens, and vineyards, and make great havoc among the fruit trees. Fig. 187. — Jerboa-Kat ( Gerbillus Burtoni). Jerboa- Rat Genus. — These animals (Fig. 187) are a kind of Bat having the hind legs much longer than the fore — a pecu- liarity which causes them to have a particular mode of loco- motion. The Jerboa-Bats neither walk nor run on the surface of the ground, but move forwards by leaping. They inhabit the plains of Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa, hollowing out bur- rows in which they hoard up stores of corn. The size of these animals varies between that of the Mouse and the Black Bat. With this genus we conclude the great family of Bats. We have now to speak of another group of Bodents which resemble 454 MAMMALIA. them in their dental system, but are specially organised with a view to a subterranean existence. These animals are armed with stout claws, with which they dig out runs through loose soils, cutting in two, with their powerful incisors, the roots which obstruct their path. Their habits of life are, in short, almost exactly the same as those of the Moles, of which we shall speak when treating of the insectivorous animals. They are heavy in shape, with a thick-set body, and a short tail, or sometimes no tail at all ; their head is large, with a flattened skull, slightly developed external ears, and very small eyes. In the Blind Mole-Bat, indeed, the latter organs are entirely want- ing ; or if they exist at all, they can be of no use for purposes of vision, being almost imperceptible, and entirely covered by skin. Fig. 188. — Mole-rat (Spalax typhtus). The Mole-Bats feed on seeds and roots. They are natives of the east of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They have been divided into several genera, the principal ones being the Spalax, the African Mole-Bat, and the Bhyzomys. The Mole-Bat (Eig. 188) is the type of the whole group. It has a very long and angular- shaped head, which it actually uses as a kind of wedge in burrowing. It is devoid of tail, and differs but little in size from the Black Bat. It is described by Buffon under the name of Zemni. It is found in Asia Minor, Southern Bussia, Hungary, and even Greece. The Coast-Bats or Sand-Moles are natives of Africa. They ORDER OF RODENTIA. 4:55 make their abode in sandy districts, especially in the dunes along the sea-coast. The most remarkable species is the Great Cape Mole, which makes its runs so deep that horses have been known to sink into them oyer their knees. It is about the size of a Babbit. An Abyssinian species, the Brilliant Mole-Bat, is thus named on account of its coat, which is of a red colour, with metallic reflections. This variety is not larger than a common Bat. The Bhyzomys is a native of the dense bamboo forests in the Malacca peninsula : it feeds on the roots and young shoots of this vegetable. In size it is a little smaller than the Great Cape Mole. Fig. 189. — Jerboa ( Dipus egyptius ). The animals of the group which follows next are characterised by the enormous disproportion between their fore and hind legs. They are divided into two chief genera — the Jerboas, and the Pedetes or Helamys. The Jerboa Genus. — Jerboas (Fig.. 189) are pretty little animals, with a large head, prominent eyes, and wide ears. Their front legs are very short, with only four toes at the extremities, fitted for digging. The hind legs are five or six times longer than the front ones, and are terminated by three or five toes, according to the species. This kind of organisation recalls to mind that of the Jerboa-Bats ; but in the present case the peculiarity is much 456 MAMMALIA. more striking. The tail is long and covered with short hair, and terminated by a tuft ; the coat is soft and thick. The J erhoa inhabits the vast solitudes of Africa, and the steppes of Tartary and Eussia. They dig out burrows, in which they pass the day, sleeping on a bed of grass and moss. But in the evening they seek their food, which consists of roots and seeds. They make use of their fore paws to convey what they eat to their mouths. Under ordinary circumstances, when nothing occurs to hurry or excite them, the Jerboas walk on all fours ; but if, from the scarcity of sustenance, or the necessity of escaping from danger, they are compelled to go a considerable distance in a short space of time, they use their hind legs only, moving forward in leaps, like the Jerboa-Eats ; hut the span of their bounds is of much greater extent, reaching sometimes to three yards. The way in which these springs are made is very curious. The animal first crouches down on its tarsi, at the same time stretch- ing out and stiffening its tail, so as to make another hearing- point on the ground ; then, suddenly, it hounds forward, as if forced hy a spring. The same manoeuvre is repeated after an imperceptible interval of time. It is said that the Jerboa can compete in. speed with a fast horse. The ancients, looking at this peculiar mode of progression, were led to think that the fore legs of these Eodents were absolutely unfitted for walking, and for this reason gave them the name of Dipus, which signifies two-footed. Jerboas are difficult to tame ; they can, however, be kept in cages ; and the menagerie of the J ardin des Plantes at Paris is in possession of several specimens. It is necessary to place them in cages made of iron wire, for the hardest wood cannot resist their jaws. Their size varies from that of the Mouse to that of the Brown Eat. Among the numerous species which are known, we will mention one which is common in Algeria, especially in the province of Oran, the Alactaga, called also by the significant name of Sagitta, or Arrow, which is also a native of Southern Eussia and some parts of Asia. The Pedetes Genus. — The Great Jerboa, or Jumping-Hare, or Spring-Hare of the Colonists, and Helamys, are the representa- ORDER OE RODENTIA. 457 tives of the Jerboa in South Africa. Their habits are about the same as the other members of the genus. In point of fact, they re'semble Hares in size, although they are more slenderly made. Only one species is known. Under the name of Pouched Pats, we shall place together a certain number of American Podents, which are characterised by the possession of large and deep cheek-pouches. These are the Saccomys and the Saccophorus. The Saccomys Genus. — The Saccomys resemble the Jerboa in the length of their hind-legs, and their habit of leaping. They are for the most part natives of the country lying around the Fig. 190. — Pouched Eat ( Saccophorus borealis ). Gulf of Mexico, and are about the size of a Water-Pat. We are in possession of but little information as to their modes of life. It appears that the Saccomys are fond of flowers, and feed upon them. Flowers, however, can only form a part of their alimentary system, for that diet would be altogether insufficient to sustain their strength without the assistance of other substances. The Saccophorus Genus. — This animal is a native of the regions to the north of the preceding. Their name signifies sack-bearer. They have immense cheek-pouches, which sometimes hang down to the ground, and assume a most extraordinary development. These sacs are used as a temporary receptacle for provisions 458 MAMMALIA. till deposited in their burrows. These Eodents are armed with powerful claws, with which they hollow out runs and holes in the ground. Hence the name of Greomys, or Earth-Eats (from yrj , earth, and /dk, Eat or Mouse), applied to them. The Hew World also supports a group of Eodents, which are distinguished by the following characteristics, — strong claws, useful for digging, prominent eyes, well- developed ears, a soft and thick coat, a long or moderately-sized tail, pretty well covered with hair. This group is that of the Chinchillidee, which includes the Chinchilla, Lagotis, and Yiscaccia genera. Fig. 191. — The Chinchilla ( Chinchilla lanigev ). The Chinchilla Genus. — The Chinchillas have rounded and widely-spread ears, the tail moderately long, and of a brush-like shape, similar to that of the Squirrel ; long stiff feelers, like moustachios, adorn the upper lip. Their fur is soft, of a glossy grey colour, and forms a considerable article of trade between America and Europe. These animals (Fig. 191) are natives of the Chilian and Peruvian mountains. Their food is chiefly composed of bulbous plants, to which they add dried grass and seeds. They are sociable in their nature, and their burrows are sometimes so close together as to impair the solidity of the ground, and to hinder traffic. They are very prolific, for the females bear two litters a year of three or four young. ORDER OE RODENTIA. 459 They are of a gentle nature, and easily tamed. According to the Abbe Molina, a Chilian author, “ any one may safely take them up in the hand and caress them, without any fear of their attempting to bite, or even escape ; added to this, they are sensible of kindness. People are, therefore, fond of keeping them in their houses, in which, indeed, they behave with perfect propriety as regards their habits of cleanliness.” The Chinchilla constitutes an abundant source of income for a portion of the inhabitants of Chili and Peru. The high price fetched by their fur exposes them to all the evils avidity en- genders. They are hunted with dogs which have been trained to lay hold of them delicately, so as not to injure their valuable coats. Fig. 192. — The Lagotis ( Lagotis Cuvieri). At the commencement of the present century, the fur of the Chinchilla was so much sought after in Europe, and the quantity of it which was sent from America was so considerable, that the Chilian government was compelled to take energetic measures in order to preserve the species from complete destruction. Between the years 1828 and 1832, there were sold, in London alone, more than eighteen thousand Chinchilla skins. At the present day, although this fur is a little out of fashion, it is still very far from having fallen into disuse. The Lagotis Genus. — The Chinchillas have five toes on their hind-feet, but the Lagotis (Fig. 192) have but four, the same as 460 on the fore-feet. Added to this, their ears and their tail are longer, and their shape is more elegant. These are the principal features which justify their being placed in a separate genus. They are natives of the Bolivian, Peruvian, and Chilian Andes, and in their habits differ but little from Chinchillas. Their coat is as soft as that of the latter animal, but of a less uniform shade of colour. In spite of this it possesses value. The Viscacha Genus. — These animals (Fig. 193) are character- ised by a very thick snout, furnished with black strong feelers, by a moderately- sized tail of a brush-like shape, four toes on the front feet, and three on the hind, the latter armed with Fig. 193. — The Marmot Diana Viscache ( Lagostomus trichadactylus). strong claws. Added to this, their hind-legs are longer than their fore-legs, and they leap like the Jerboas. This latter feature, however, is much less exaggerated in the Yiscacha than in the Jerboa. The habitat of these animals is the vast plains or pampas of South America, or the basin of La Plata river. Thej7 live in communities, and hollow out very deep burrows. Grasses and vegetables constitute the chief part of their food. Their usual posture is that generally assumed by Babbits ; and they use their feet to convey their food into their mouths. Their movements are very active, and they are excessively wary and difficult of ORDER OF RODENTIA. 461 approach. They are hunted for the sake of their fur, of which the natives make caps. After the Chinchillas comes a group of Bodents analogous to Bats with regard to their shape and size, hut distinguished from the latter by their dental system and the texture of their hair. While Bats have only three pairs of grinders in each jaw, these animals possess four, added to which, their coat is generally more or less sprinkled with diminutive quills. This last characteristic, however, is not a constant attribute. We shall, notwithstanding, apply the denomination of Prickly-haired Bats to all the animals Fig. 194. — Ctenomys. which compose this group, for we shall by this means avoid enter- ing into details of a nomenclature which is both barbarous and difficult to remember. These Bodents are exclusively natives of the New World, and chiefly belong to South America. They feed on vegetable sub- stances obtained on the surface of the soil. Their tail is long, generally scaly, and sometimes furnished with short hair. Natu- ralists call them the Ctenomys (Fig. 194). Beside these Bodents are ranked the Capromys, which have the same habits, but are as large as Babbits. The Capromys are inhabitants of Cuba ; they can climb with ease, and will readily ascend trees. Their food consists of leguminous fruits and aromatic 462 MAMMALIA. plants, of which they are very fond ; all animal substances are excessively repugnant to them. They are very intelligent, and may he easily tamed. The preceding group serves as a link of connection with the Porcupines, which are singular animals, endowed with a very peculiar faculty, namely, that of causing their body, wThich is covered with quills, to bristle up, and thus forming for themselves a cuirass both offensive and defensive. Before proceeding further, we may mention that the small family of Porcupines is divided Fig. 195. — Porcupine ( Hystrix cristata). into four genera — Porcupines Proper, the Prehensile Porcupines, the Aulacodes, and the Mexican Porcupine. Genies of Common Porcupine. — The species often called the Crested Porcupine, inhabits Italy, Greece, Spain, Northern Africa, and different parts of Asia. We shall describe it, which will serve to characterise the whole genus. This Porcupine is one of the largest Podents ; its average total length exceeds twenty- four inches. The principal features of its physiology, exclusive of its coat (Fig. 195), are very powerful upper incisors, short thick toes, furnished with strong claws, a large head bulging out in the frontal region, small eyes, short ears, a slightly split mouth, and thick-set shape, com- bined with an awkward and clumsy gait. ORDER OF RODENTIA. 463 The back, thighs, and rump of this animal are covered with pointed quills from eight to nine inches long ; these quills are annulated with black and white, and fixed to the skin by a pedicle. By means of the action of an enormous muscle, which moves at the will of the animal, these can bristle up and radiate in all directions. Their tail is rudimentary, and is not, like the back, covered with quills, but with entirely hollow, white tubes, which produce a sharp sound when they clash together. The muzzle is furnished with long and strong whiskers; the head and neck are covered with flexible hair, which is not prickly, but is susceptible of standing on end. The hinder parts of the body are completely devoid of quills, and the hair is there moderately soft. Long hair is also found on the fore parts, but it is intermixed with bristles. Under ordinary circumstances, the quills of the Porcupine lie close down on its body, and no one would suppose that at a moment’s warning they could become formidable weapons. But let anger or fear seize upon the animal, and a whole forest of bayonets spring up. If assailed, the Porcupine turns its back to the enemy, and places its head between its fore-paws, at the same time uttering a hollow grunting noise. If the assailant will not be intimidated, the Porcupine endeavours to thrust its quills against the body of the foe. The wounds thus inflicted are much to be dreaded ; for not only are they difficult and tedious to cure, but frequently the detached barbs adhering in the flesh are almost impossible to extract. The Porcupine is a shy, solitary, and nocturnal animal. It inhabits unfrequented localities, and hollows out deep burrows with several entrances. At night it comes forth to procure its food, which consists of herbs and fruit. It is not essentially hibernant in its habits. The female brings forth three or four young ones once a year, and they are covered with quills from their birth. The flesh of the Porcupine is good food, with somewhat the flavour of pork. It is, doubtless, this similarity, and also the grunting noise which they make, to which it owes its name of Porcupine. The Sunda Islands possess a species of Porcupine which is dis- tinguished from the preceding by a long tail. This is tho 464 MAMMALIA. Malacca Porcupine, or Brush-tailed Porcupine (Fig. 196). It is smaller than the common species, and is found in Sumatra, Java, and Malacca. America also possesses some species of Porcupines. The most remarkable is the Urson, or Canada Porcupine (Fig. 197), which is found north of the 46th degree of latitude. It is as large as the European species, and it inhabits pine forests, feeding principally on the bark of trees, and its den is hollowed out underneath their roots. When attacked, it draws its legs beneath its body, sets up its quills, and lashes around with its tail. The Indians hunt it for the sake of its flesh, which is good, Fig. 196. — Brush-tailed Porcupine ( Atherura africana). and also for its skin, from which they make caps, after having plucked out the quills, which are used by them for pins. Genus of Prehensile-tailed Porcupines. — Prehensile Porcupines are characterised by a partly bare, prehensile tail, and hooked, and sharply-pointed claws, which enable them to climb trees. Their quills are not long, and are frequently hidden under their hair. They have a depressed forehead, and not a prominent one, like that of common Porcupines. They are principally met with in South America. The Prehensile Porcupine has been observed in Paraguay b^ the Spanish naturalist Azara. The length of its body is about a ORDER OE RODENTIA. 465 foot and a half, and that of its tail ten inches. It lives on trees, and all its movements are excessively slow. It appeared to dislike exertion, and Azara noticed one that remained in the same posture for forty-eight hours. In short, it is a lazy, indifferent, and apathetic animal, which only exerts itself to obtain food. Azara possessed five of them, which he fed on leaves, fruits of all kinds, manioc, maize, and bread. Synetherus Genus. — The only known species is the Mexican Fig. 197.— Canadian Porcupine ( Erethizon dorsatum). Porcupine, which has its body entirely covered with quills. It is found in the forests of Guiana, Brazil, and Mexico. Aulacodus Genus. — We mention these animals (Fig. 198) because their shape differs essentially from that of other Porcupines. Their head and body are much more elongated, and their toes shorter. Their tail is rather long, and covered with prickly hair. These animals are as large as Rabbits, and inhabit western and southern Africa. The group of Cavies, which comes after the Porcupines, com- prehends a certain number of Rodents, differing in appearance, which, however, are indubitably connected by certain charac- teristics common to all. Their grinders are devoid of roots ; their toes, to the number of four in front and three behind, are terminated by rounded claws, somewhat similar to hoofs ; they H H 46G MAMMALIA. have no tail, or if any, quite rudimentary. Tlie Cavies belong exclusively to South America, and they are divided into four principal genera — the Capybaras, the Cobay as, the Cavia Pacas, or Spotted Cavies, and the Agoutis. Capybara. — The Capybaras, also called Hydrochceres, and Water- Pigs (Fig. 199), are the largest of all the Podents. The only species which has yet been observed measures three feet in length and a foot and a half in height. This animal possesses a massive body, a large head, short and rounded ears, moderately long legs, semi- webbed toes, and rough scanty hair, which is generally of a brown colour. It lives gregariously, on the banks of lakes and rivers, feeds on grass, and hollows out burrows to sleep rig. 198. — Ground Pig ( Auiacodus Swinderianus) . in. At the appearance of danger, they plunge into the water, in which they are perfectly at home. Carnivorous animals, such as Jaguars, Cougars, &c., destroy them in great numbers. They are also hunted by Man for the sake of their flesh, which is said to be very good. This Podent is of a very docile disposition, and becomes quite tame if taken young. It is very numerous in Guiana, and most of the regions washed by the tributaries of the Amazon. Cobay a. — In respect of size, the Cobay as contrast singularly with the Capybaras ; for they are not larger than Pats. These pretty little animals are generally known under the name of Guinea-Pigs. Their domestication dates back to a very distant OKDEE OE BODENTIA. 467 epoch. This fact may at least be inferred from their being marked by large black and yellow patches on a white ground, a peculiarity of colour which they presented even before their intro- duction into Europe in the middle of the sixteenth century — a peculiarity which cannot be attributed to the agency of nature, as no wild Mammal is ever marked in different ways on each side of its body. When in captivity, Guinea-Pigs manifest no intelligence, they seem entirely absorbed in satisfying their material wants, and do not appear to have any consciousness of caresses bestowed on Fig. 199.— Capybara ( Hydrochcerus capybara) . them. As the females produce a good many at a birth, and the young ones are fitted for reproduction at a very early age, it naturally results that they multiply rapidly. Buffon stated that a single couple might have a progeny of a thousand within the year. They are nocturnal in their habits. There is one peculiarity which is not very often met with among Mammals, that of the young ones coming into the world almost wholly developed, their size alone excepted. This is the case with Guinea-pigs. In point of fact, when they are born they can follow their mother about and eat and suck, for their teeth are, even at this early age, very strong. h h 2 468 MAMMALIA. Guinea-Pigs (Fig. 200) may very easily be fed, for they will eat bread, roots, vegetables, and grasses. It has been com- monly thought that they never drink ; but this is a mistake. When their nutriment is of a dry nature, and they have water within reach, they use it. Almost worthless, it is not easy to see the reason which has induced Man, for so many ages, to rear them in a state of domesticity. Their diminutiveness and the unsavouriness of Fig. 200.— Guinea-Pigs (Cavm aperca). their flesh place them very low among animals which are fit for food. It must be, therefore, from curiosity, rather than with any real views of profit, that the Guinea-Pig has been naturalized in Europe, and that a place is sometimes assigned it among our domestic animals. The Guinea-Pig is found wild in South America, princi- pally in Guiana, Peru, and Brazil. They lead a nocturnal life, and, according to the species, either dig out burrows for themselves or find a retreat among the herbage. Their fruitful- OEDEE OF EODENTIA. 4G9 ness is then much, greater than that of the domestic species. It is said that the latter is the descendant of the Cobaya Aperea, a species indigenous to Brazil and Guiana. The Cavy Paca Genus. — The Pacas (Fig. 201) take a middle place as to size between the Capybara and the Guinea-Pig. Their body is thick-set, the head large and provided with cheek- pouches, the legs moderately short, but a little longer behind than in front ; the toes are armed with claws adapted for digging, the coat is rough but not thick. They are natives of the forests of Brazil, Guiana, and Para- guay. In the vicinity of water they dig burrows, provided with Fig. 201. — Suoiy Paca (Ccelogenys puca). three outlets. Their flesh is excellent, and thejr are therefore hunted with some eagerness. They are capable of being acclima- tized in Europe, and of being reared in a domestic state, for their nature is very gentle and they are easily tamed. Added to this, there is no difficulty in feeding them, as they will eat all kinds of vegetable substances, and even meat. The Agouti Genus. — The Agouti (Fig. 202) bears some resem- blance to the Hare ; its legs are longer and more slender, but its ears are not so fully developed. In point of size, however, there is but little difference. Its short and stiff coat is liable to stand on end under the influence of anger or fear. 470 MAMMALIA. The Agoutis are natives of South America and the West Indies. Woods spreading over hills and mountains are the localities where they generally take up their abode ; and the clefts of rocks, or the hollows in trees, serve for their retreats. If ready-made places of shelter are not procurable, they dig burrows. They are nocturnal in their habits, and feed princi- pally on roots and fruit. But when in captivity they are omnivorous, and manifest an unbearable voracity, for they gnaw everything they can get at. The Agouti is hunted in America, just as the Hare and Babbit are in Europe, with Bogs, laid in wait for and shot, or taken in Fig. 202.— The Agouti ( Dasyjorocta agouti). traps and snares, for it constitutes excellent human food. It can be very easily tamed. Beavers (Castor). — W^e now have to describe certain Mam- mals which are celebrated all over the world for their industrious habits and intelligence ; but, in the first place, let us attempt to draw a portrait of these interesting Rodents. The Beaver does not possess a pleasing appearance. Its thick- set shape, its large head, small eyes, cloven upper lip, which shows its powerful incisors ; its long and wide tail, flattened like a spatula and covered with scales — combine to give it an awkward appearance. Its hind feet are larger than the OBDEK OF BODENTIA. 471 fore, and are fully webbed. Owing to the deep separation . of the fingers, and the existence of certain fleshy tubercles, placed on the lower face of the extremities, they fulfil to some extent the functions of thumbs, those in front more especially. The muzzle is prolonged a little way beyond the jaws, and the nostrils are remarkably mobile. The ears are also movable ; they do not show much, and the animal has the faculty of placing them close to its head when it dives, so as to prevent water entering the auditory passage. Its coat is well adapted to the requirements of an aquatic life, and is composed of a fine thick woolly substance, which lies close upon the skin and is impervious to water. This first covering is hidden under long, silky, and glossy hair. The Beaver is about a foot in height and two feet in length, not including the tail, which is about one half the length of the body. We have already stated that Musk-Rats combine to construct habitations in close proximity to one another. The Beaver affords us a still more striking example of the love of associating with its own race, for, when practicable, they invariably live in numerous societies. Beavers are essentially aquatic; they swim with great ease ; in their hind feet they possess effective propelling power, and in their tail an excellent rudder. Countries intersected with lakes and rivers are, therefore, the localities in which they are found, such as the unfrequented solitudes of North America and Canada. Before the advent of the White Man they were universally spread over the northern portion of that continent. A feature to be noted in the habits of the Beaver is its extreme cleanliness. It will not suffer the slightest trace of filth to remain on the floor of its chamber. In captivity it preserves this characteristic. Buffon, who kept one, says that when it was shut up for too long a period, it deposited its excrement near the door, and that, as soon as it was opened, it hastened to eject it.* This dread of filthiness appears to be owing to the exquisite sensibility of its nasal organs. The Beaver does not build a house when the conditions of existence cease to demand it. This explains why the surviving * Having for some months possessed three tame Beavers, whose habits I closely studied, I can testify to the correctness of this statement. — Ed. 472 MAMMALIA. European Beavers, instead of congregating to work and live in common like their brethren in America, lead a solitary life and inhabit burrows, which has caused the name of Terrier Beavers to be given them. Indeed, it can be readily understood that the vicinity of Man, his incessant persecutions and interruptions, would disturb the quietude of streams and rivers, the choice retreats of this race, and therefore they are forced to modify the habits of their lives. It is a melancholy circumstance to note that the Beaver is gradually disappearing, as well in America as elsewhere. So Fig. 203.— Tlie Beaver {Castor fiber). incessant has been their pursuit, and so indiscriminate theii* slaughter, and their numbers have so considerably diminished within a century, that we might prognosticate the time that the species will cease to exist.* “ The societies of Beavers/’ says M. Ernest Menault, in an article which we will again refer to, “ maintained themselves on our soil (France) until the termination of the Middle Age, not- withstanding the constant attacks made on them by Man. But * Of late years, from the value of Beaver skins having much diminished, and consequently their being less persecuted, they are again rapidly increasing. — Ed. ORDER OF EODENTIA. 473 in proportion as the latter began to improve his weapons and his method of hunting, the Beavers increased in prudence, in cunning, and in sagacity. A communal life entailed too great dangers, and it was necessary to renounce the amenities of association. The families dispersed, and no longer finding security in those huts which attract the notice of their enemies, the Beavers have taken refuge in the rocky crevices that overhang streams. “ Thus it is that this animal has given up a social existence, that it has adopted manners and customs which are altogether novel to it, that it has created a new occupation for itself, and that the builder has become a miner. In this way it has acted in quite a contrary fashion to Man, who at first hid himself underground in caverns, but at a later period constructed huts on the surface as soon as he had no longer to fear the attacks of ferocious beasts.” Many people are not aware that Beavers are still to be found in France ; and yet such is the case. Certainly they are very few, but their existence nevertheless cannot be contested. The southern portion of the Rhone, and accidentally the entrance of its principal affluents, such as the Isere, the Grardon, and the Durance, are where French Beavers are to be found. Un- fortunately, everything leads to the belief that they will not long enjoy this privilege ; the avidity excited in Man for pos- session of these creatures will infallibly bring about their com- plete annihilation. The Beavers of the Rhone chiefly frequent islets. As these are, for the most part, uninhabited, they find themselves more secure there than on the banks. Their burrow communicates with the stream by a long gallery, which always opens below the surface of the water, so as to hide their dwelling from malevolent eyes. This burrow is sometimes very large, and affords an asylum to many individuals. On a property in the department of the Card, a bank having fallen in, exposed one of these subterranean abodes. It measured fifty feet in length, and was partitioned off into several compartments. Colonies of Constructive Beavers are yet to be found in Europe. This fact was noted in 1787 by a German observer, not far from Magdeburg, on one of the affluents of the Elbe. A number had collected in this place, and had built huts in every respect 474 MAMMALIA. similar to tliose of American Beavers. Such colonies are, as may be imagined, excessively rare, and excite the greatest amount of curiosity. The Beaver thrives in captivity, and although the water is its favourite element, it may be kept from it without in- convenience. The one Buffon possessed, and which had been taken from Canada when very young, was even frightened at the sight of water, and refused to enter it ; but after being forced to take a bath for a few minutes, it began to enjoy it, and returned to paddle in it whenever opportunity offered. It was very familiar, but without much affection, and when asking for food it shook its fore paws and uttered feeble cries. The interesting experiment has been made of rearing the Beaver in a domestic state, by placing it in those conditions in which its natural instincts might be developed, and even by various means facilitating the manifestations of these instincts. An attempt of this kind was undertaken by M. Exinger, of Vienna, on the banks of a large pond situated in the vicinity of Modlin, Poland. The Bulletin of the Societe d’Acclimatation has given an account of this effort. * The Beavers of M. Exinger belonged to those which burrow in the ground. This observer was able to study them for six years. They were very timid, and scarcely ever left their retreat until nightfall. At the approach of winter, M. Exinger had the willow and poplar trees cut down, and laid them on the bank of the pond, the trunks in the water. In the first cold days the Beavers dragged these trees to the bottom of the pond, and ranged them side by side, weaving them in such a manner as to form a solid and resisting mass. When the winter was prolonged, M. Exinger broke the ice and introduced some fresh trunks of trees, so as to furnish an additional supply of provisions for the prisoners. Dr. Sacc, in alluding to this example, remarks that there is here an excellent means of utilising the immense marshes of the East and North of Europe, in favouring the settlement and multi- plication of Beavers. It would suffice for this purpose to plant the banks of these marshes with trees suitable for Beavers — willows, poplars, alders, birches, &c. The enterprise would not be an expensive one, and would soon become a source of wealth, for * January, 1866. ORDER OF RODENTIA. 475 Europe would hereafter produce within itself those valuable furs that are now bought at such a high price in America. In 1868, Beavers were brought from America to the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, where they created much interest. M. Ernest Menault has described, in the following terms, the habits of these little foreigners. “ These animals/’ says M. Ernest Menault, “ are four in 476 MAMMALIA. number. Two have been given by Captain Laynel, wbo brought them from Newfoundland. The others had been pur- chased from M. Douenel. All are lodged in a large wooden box, the door of which opens on the side of a pond. As soon as the Castors discovered that they were placed in con- ditions which were favourable to their mode of existence, they set to work to consolidate their habitation, so as the better to resist the severity of the weather, and to shelter themselves more effectually. And, what is a remarkable fact, which can neither be ascribed either to habit or pure instinct, these Castors turned up the turf of the little lawn belonging to their domain, J and carried it on to their hut in such a way as completely to cover it, forming a roof fit to carry off the rain and keep out the cold and noise. In a word, they executed a special work which was not in accordance with their habits. “ There is another trait of their intelligence. At the opposite extremity to the entrance of their cabin an opening was made, through which to give them their food — bread and carrots. This appeared useless to them, and perhaps they were doubtful of the !; aperture being conducive to their safety : so they closed this opening by covering it over with earth. Every day the keeper undid their work, and every day they re-performed it. It was at last decided to leave them alone. M. Milne Edwards, who took the greatest interest in them, put at their disposal branches of trees : these they amused themselves by gnawing, carrying the debris into their hut. These intelligent animals took great pains to throw their excrement out of their habitation. In winter they closed the entrance to their home, the better to keep out the cold. “ The Beaver forms, Buffon has said, the intermediate link between the quadrupeds and fishes, as the Bat forms that between quadrupeds and birds. But to return to our description of those | in Paris. One day they embarked on their little river to pay a visit to another Castor, which led a solitary life in a small cabin situated at the extremity of the domain. So far as might be judged, the greeting on both sides was of the most cordial nature. The next day, the hermit returned the visit of his new acquaintances. Fou will say that what passed at this interview is impossible for me to describe. Nevertheless, it is a fact that the poor creature ORDER OE RODENTIA. 477 was found lying lifeless at the door of those he had taken for his friends. Was it because he had asked to live with them, and that, not knowing him, they refused to accede to his demand, which resulted in a struggle which terminated in his death P “It is with reluctance that we can believe that such an act of ferocity could be committed by animals which have the greatest aversion for blood, which are the opponents of rapine and war, which are endowed with such a mild and pacific character, and are essentially devoted to liberty.”* It is not only the fur of the Beaver that is in demand : there is also another particular product named castor eum, which is used in medicine as an antispasmodic. This is an odoriferous substance, secreted by two glands situated at the root of the tail. Two other pouches in their vicinity produce an oil, which lubricates their coats, and renders them impervious to water. Further, we are assured that the flesh of the Beaver is edible, and that the North American Indians and white traders consider it a bonne-bouche. The Castors inhabit the northern regions of the two continents. They are found in Europe, Asia, and America. In Asia, they are only to be met with in Siberia and Northern Tartary ; in Europe, in Russia, Poland, Prussia, Austria, and the south of France. In former times they were found in every part of France, and probably Great Britain. Fossil remains of the Beaver have been discovered near Paris, and the little Bievre river appears to have been so named in consequence of the Beavers which lived on its banks. The Castors of the Rhone are called Bievres by the people of Southern France. Myopotamus. — The genus Myopotamus (River-Rats) greatly resembles the Beaver. They are about the same size, and, like the latter, have palmated feet ; but their tail is cylindrical and scaly. The only known species of Myopotamus is the Coypou {Myopo- tamus coy pus, Mus coy pus molina), which is very common in Chili and La Plata, and is also, though more rarely, found in Brazil and the other states of South America, where the natives inces- santly persecute it on account of its valuable fur. As it remains in its burrow during the day, it is hunted at night with Dogs. Some * L'Annee Illustree , 12 March., 1868. 478 MAMMALIA. time ago the exportation of Coypou skins was carried on very extensively. According to M. D’Orbigny, there were sold, from 1827 to 1828, more than 150,000 dozens by the name of Castors of La Plata ; and in certain years the total number of skins offered in the various markets of the -world has attained three millions. We will now pass to the interesting group of Squirrels (. Sciuridce ). This group comprises, besides the Squirrels pro- perly so called, the Sciuropterus, the Pteromys, the Anomalurus, all Flying Squirrels, and the Tamias, or Ground Squirrels. Genus Squirrel. — The Squirrels are pretty little animals, elegant in form, and rapid in movement, of a lively disposition, Fig. 205. — Coypou ( Myopotamus coypus). and with a bright inquisitive eye. They are readily recognised by their long tails, raised like a plume above their heads, and furnished with bushy hair that stands out like the barbules of a feather ; by their ears, which are sometimes terminated by a tuft of hair ; and by their soft fur, which is abundant, clean, and glossy. They have sharp claws, and climb trees with extra- ordinary rapidity. The forest is their natural home. Their agility is extreme ; their restlessness astonishing. If seen for a moment in one place, like a flash of light they appear to flit to another. We see them passing incessantly from branch to branch, from tree to ORDER OF RODENTIA. 479 tree ; or, again, they jump to the ground from elevations which seem to threaten their destruction. But these acrobatic feats do not at all injure them, and immediately afterwards they will begin to gambol about in every conceivable manner. Their tail is in truth of the greatest assistance in these perilous flights, in which they often clear distances of twelve or fifteen paces. Fig. 206. — European Squirrel {Sciurus europeus). Carried horizontally during the j ump, it presents a wide flattened surface to the air, and, with the extended members, offers a resist- ance to the atmosphere. The Squirrel chiefly lives upon hazel-nuts, beech-nuts, acorns, almonds, chestnuts, and fruit. However, on occasions it will become carnivorous, for when it finds a bird’s-nest it cleverly sucks the eggs, or devours the tenants. In northern countries 480 MAMMALIA. it eats the seeds of the pines and fir-trees, which it expertly extracts from the cone. So great are the strength and sharp- ness of its teeth that it readily perforates the hardest nntshell to extract the kernel ; and in doing so it usually sits up and holds the food to its mouth with the fore-paws. Among other qualities, it has the instinct of forethought, and stores provisions in summer, so that it may not suffer from hunger in winter. It even takes further precautions, and, in- dependent of its principal storehouse, conceals food in various places, that it may not be left destitute should intruders dis- cover the principal magazine. It usually accumulates these reserves in the trunks of trees, occasionally in the ground ; and its memory is so good that it remembers perfectly where they are situated. It scarcely ever leaves its lurking place during midday, par- ticularly if the sun is bright, but enjoys a siesta in its nest — a real nest, comfortably lined, placed in a crevice between two branches, or in a hole in the trunk of a tree. This dormitory is made of little bits of dry wood, solidly interlaced with moss, and is almost spherical in form ; it is large enough to lodge the father, mother, and three or four young ones. At the upper part is a narrow opening, only just sufficient for entrance and exit; but as the rain would find access through this aperture, the Squirrel places above it an oblique shelf, which carries off the water, and pre- serves the dwelling from becoming wet. These graceful, fascinating Rodents live in couples. Their union is not temporary, as with so many other Mammals, for the male continues to live with its mate during life. The mother manifests tenderness for her young, and this causes her to resort to various stratagems to shield them from surrounding perils. Thus, before bringing forth, she constructs several nests, at certain distances from each other ; and it frequently happens, even without any appearance of danger, but as a measure of precaution, she takes her progeny in her mouth, and effects a change of residence. In the morning, with the first indications of dawn, she descends with her family to take exercise, but if any intruder appears, she carries them off to a place of safety with surprising rapidity. The better to conceal her movements, she adopts a device truly effective. She remains concealed behind OEDEE OF EODENTIA. 481 the trunk of the tree, and turns round it at the same time as her pursuers, be it Man or animal, so as always to have it inter- vening, at the same time ascending so cleverly that at last, un- perceived, she reaches her destination. There she rests still and invisible among the foliage until the danger has disappeared. It is this ruse which makes it so difficult to succeed in shooting them. This animal swims very well, but will not enter water unless compelled. Cleanliness it practises to such an extent as to employ a large portion of its time in dressing its fur. Consequently it never exhales an unpleasant odour. TV hen irritated, it emits a sort of growling sound ; but its habitual cry is a shrill note, that not unfrequently betrays its presence. The handsome coat, vivacity, and gracefulness of the Squirrel have attracted the sympathy of Man. Few have not known it as a pet. Taken young, it is tamed with facility ; but it never shows markedly any traits of affection. When will people cease to confine Squirrels in those horrible revolving cages, which they wheel round, to the great enjoyment of the thoughtless P Is it believed that the animaFs happiest moments are reached when doing so? Until we have proof to the contrary, we may be permitted to doubt such to be the case, and condemn the incarceration as abominable cruelty. Squirrels are found in all parts of the world, and everywhere their manners are the same as the European species, to which what we have stated is more particularly applicable. We ought to mention, however, that in certain countries Squirrels do not live in isolated couples, but in numerous bands. This is the only essential point in which the numerous species differ in habits. Their size and colour, on the contrary, vary much. Thus, the Squirrels of India and the Malayan Islands are remarkable for the brilliancy and the variety of their coats ; one of them, the Great Malabar Squirrel, is more than twice the size of the European, and even larger still is the Great Fox Squirrel of North America. In the temperate regions of Europe, this animal is usually of a more or less bright red on the back, and white beneath, sometimes it is a deep brown, almost black. Elsewhere the pelage of the Squirrel varies in colour according 482 MAMMALIA. to the season, having a summer and winter coat. In Sweden, Russia, and Siberia, it becomes of a fine greyish slate colour under the influence of cold. Its fur at this period acquires value, and is exported in considerable quantities. Genera Sciuropterus, Pteromys, and Anomalurus. — The animals divided into these three genera are vulgarly known by the name of Flying Squirrels. Their common character consists in their being provided with wing-like membranes, extending along the flanks between the anterior and posterior members. These membranes are covered with hair like the other parts of the body, Fig. 207. — American Jb'lying Squirrels {Sciuropter us volmella). and constitute veritable parachutes, which enable them to sustain themselves a little longer in mid-air than the commonalty of animals, and consequently to clear considerable distances at a single bound. These, then, are not wings, and of no use for ascent like the wings of Birds, but are only serviceable in descending and moving horizontally. With the exception of this characteristic feature, these three genera of Rodents have absolutely the physiognomy and the habits of the true Squirrels. The Sciuropteres (Winged Squirrels), Fig. 207, are the smallest of the flying Squirrels. They inhabit the northern regions of the globe, particularly Russia, Siberia, and North America; and it ORDER OF RODENTIA. 483 would appear that they are also found on the Indian slopes of the Himalayas. The Pteromys (Winged Rats, from irrcpov, wing, rat) are much larger than the preceding. They are proper to Southern Asia and the Indian Archipelago. The best-known species is the Taguan (Fig. 208). The Anomalures (Fig. 209) were not known to naturalists until 1840, when Mr. Fraser brought one from Fernando-Po. They inhabit the West Coast of Africa. One of their most singular characteristics consists in the presence, at the inferior base of the i'ig. 208. -Taguan (Pteromys petuurista) . tail, of thick scales dove-tailed into one another, the use of which appears to be to furnish a point of support when they climb vertically along the trees. Genus Tamia. — The Tamias greatly resemble the true Squirrels ; but they have a shorter tail, and are provided with cheek- pouches. Their life is not exclusively spent in trees, they run very actively on the ground ; and, instead of building on trees, they excavate burrows, in which they accumulate the provisions transferred from their cheek-pouches. They live on fruit and grain. These animals are to be found in Africa, India, and North America. The principal species are the Burrowing Squirrel of Senegal, the Palm Squirrel of the Indian continent, 1 1 2 484 MAMMALIA. and the Ground Squirrel of the United States, where it is known by the name of Hackee, from the sharp double note it utters when alarmed. Genus Spermophilus. — The Spermophiles do not in reality belong to the group of Squirrels, but, through the Tamias, they connect with the Marmots. Like the Tamias, they have cheek- pouches ; but while these creatures are semi- terrestrial, semi- I'ig. 2l9.— Auomaiurus. aerial, the Spermophilus is essentially terrestrial. Their tail, though clothed with hair, is not long, nor tufted, nor is it carried overhead, like that of the Squirrels. Their name implies that they are partial to seeds, from which it may be inferred that they might become a scourge in cultivated lands. The typical species is the Souslik, which is spread over Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Boland, Russia, Siberia, and Tartary. OEDEE OF EODENTIA. 485 This animal leads a solitary life, and excavates a deep burrow, with several outlets, where it stores up grain of all sorts. How- ever, these reserves are scarcely needed, for it lies in a torpid state during the winter. Its flesh is said to be agreeable, and its fur is much esteemed. Several species of Spermophiles are found in North America. One of them, the Striped Spermophilus (Fig. 210), is so named because it has the back marked with three longitudinal bands, alternately white and brown, the latter being interspersed with white spots. Genus Marmot. — Between the lively, graceful, well-proportioned Squirrels and the Marmots, with their squat bodies and sluggish Pig. 210. — Striped or Hood’s Spermophilus ( Spermophylus Hoodu). movements, the difference is certainly considerable. Yet, not- withstanding this, the Marmots are allied to the Squirrels through the Spermophiles. The Marmots are characterised by very long, powerful incisors, strong claws, indicating burrowing habits, and by a tail of medium length, somewhat thickly garnished with hair. They have short limbs, and from that results the slowness of move- ment peculiar to them. Their ears are scarcely apparent, and their upper lip is cleft in the middle — a feature which is also common to several other Rodents. The Marmots inhabit different chains of mountains in Europe, Asia, and North America. They have nearly all the same habits ; 486 MAMMALIA. so that it will suffice if we speak of the common species, the only one, in fact, which has been well studied. The Common Marmot lives on the high peaks of the Swiss and Savoy Alps, in the vicinity of the glaciers. It forms small societies, composed of two or three families, and digs out burrows on the slopes exposed to the sun. These burrows have the form of the letter Y ; the galleries are so very narrow that it is with difficulty the human hand can be inserted into them. At the extremity of one of these oblique shafts is found a spacious chamber of an oval form, in which the proprietors rest and sleep. The vertical passage has no exit, and appears to be specially destined to receive the ordure of the community, though they may, perhaps, obtain from it the materials necessary to cover and consolidate the other two conduits, which serve for principal gallery and sleeping-room. The Marmots in a state of nature live exclusively on herbage. According to Tschudi, they crop off the shortest grass with wonderful rapidity. During fine weather they love to stretch themselves out, frisk, play, or bask in the rays of the sun. Remarkable for caution, they never sally from their retreats without taking the greatest precautions ; the old venturing first, after carefully inspecting the neighbourhood, then follow the others in rotation according to seniority. Feeding, playing, or basking, they lose nothing of their vigilance, for as soon as one has the slightest suspicion of danger, it utters a sharp bark of warning, which is quickly repeated by those near it, and in an instant the whole band rush into their burrow, or fly towards some place of concealment. Marmots have a summer and winter residence — a town and country mansion. In summer they betake themselves to the highest part of the mountain, where they devote themselves to breeding and rearing their young, the number of which varies from two to four, and who remain with the parents until the fol- lowing summer. When autumn arrives, they descend to the region of pasturage, and dig out a new burrow for their winter home, which is always deeper than the summer retreat. It is then they make hay — cutting grass, turning and drying it, which, when cured, they carry into the chamber appointed for its reception. OEDEE OF EODENTIA. 487 And why these labours ? It is a precaution to guarantee warmth ; for the winter is approaching, when they will soon commence their lethargic sleep. In this warm litter of dry herbage they entirely bury themselves, after closing up the entrance to their retreat to further guard against the rigours of an Alpine winter. It is also believed that this hay serves them as food when they begin to awake from their torpor, and before herbage has had time to show through the late snow-covered surface. It is usually towards the end of November that the Marmots \ Fig. 211. — Common Marmot (Arctomys marmotta ). commence to hibernate, and its termination takes place in April ; but these limits are not fixed, and vary each year with the temperature. “ When the winter habitation of the Marmot is thrown open/5 says Tschudi, “ the temperature is found to be about 80° to 90° Beaumur. All the members of the family, no matter how numerous they may be, are lying one upon the other, rolled up, the head towards the tail, in a torpid state, as if they were dead. The seven or eight months of winter in these high regions would infallibly kill them, if this sleep did not guarantee their being able to maintain the quiet life of a plant.”* * Le Monde des Alpes. By F. de Tschudi. Translated from the German by 0. Bourrit. Yol. iii., p. 231. 488 MAMMALIA. Naturally mild and sociable, the Marmot is readily tamed, and under the influence of good treatment becomes very affectionate and familiar; it can be even taught to perform tricks at the command of its master, and the young Savoyards turn this feature of its character to a profitable account. The Marmot lives on anything in captivity — fruit, herbs, insects, bread, and flesh ; but milk and butter are its favourite diet. If the Marmot renders some pleasure during its life to the poor people of the Alps by means of the tricks it acquires, it is much more useful to them after its death. Its flesh, is excellent, its only drawback being a slight odour ; but this may be got rid of by judicious seasoning. Its fur is not of much, value com- mercially ; but it is none the less appreciated by the hardy mountaineers, who are acquainted with rough clothes and coarse diet. From what has just been stated, it can be understood that the Marmot is sought after ; and so we find that there are Marmot hunters as there are Chamois hunters. These select for their purpose the commencement of winter, when their prey are entering into their hybernal state, and are consequently less capable of making resistance. Their burrows are easily recog- nised, for all the ground around is strewn with moss and hay : dig up these retreats, and the whole family are found. In summer, this procedure is impracticable — first, because the Marmots vigorously defend themselves with tooth and nail against any one who dares to violate their domicile ; and secondly, because they can dig as rapidly as Man, and as their enemy advances, the deeper they bury themselves in the side of the mountain. In certain Swiss cantons it is unlawful, and rightly so, to dig out Marmots during the winter. It is a wise act to protect defenceless animals against the cupidity and the im- providence of Man. After the Alpine Marmot, we may mention the Quebec Marmot, the Maryland Marmot, or Woodchuck, which are peculiar to certain parts of North America, and the Bobac or Poland Marmot. The Prairie Dog (A. ludovicianus) is an allied species, which lives in extensive communities in the wide prairies of North America ; their villages, as the hunters term their ORDER OE RODENTIA. 489 burrows, extending sometimes many miles in length. They owe their name to the supposed resemblance of their warning cry to the bark of a small dog. W e arrive, finally, at the last group of Rodents — the Leporides , that is, the Hares and Rabbits. With these animals, the upper incisors are four in number, placed two and two, and parallel one behind the other, the two posterior ones being completely concealed by those in front, which are longer and wider. This characteristic mark is of great value, as it is not found in any of the Rodents we have yet studied, and which only possessed one pair of incisors in each jaw. Besides the Hares and Rabbits, the genus Leporidce comprises other creatures, called Lagomys, which we will refer to hereafter. Genus Lepus. — The animals composing this genus have twenty- two molar teeth, formed of vertical layers joined to each other ; the ears are very large and funnel-shaped, covered with hair externally, almost nude internally ; the eyes are salient and lateral ; the upper lip cleft (thus the origin of the expression “ hare-lip ” when it exists accidentally in Man) ; the tail is short, furry, and ordinarily elevated ; the hind feet are much longer than those in front, and are provided with five toes, while the fore feet have only four ; the claws are but little developed ; the feet are entirely covered with hair, above as well as below. These traits con- stitute in their case a very distinct physiognomy. We will first speak of the Hare properly so-called. It would be superfluous to describe the Hare in detail (Fig. 212). This animal is too well known to render it necessary. As, how- ever, it might be confounded with the Rabbit, which it much resembles, it may be remarked that the Hare has the ears and the thighs longer, the body more slender, the head finer, and the coat of a deeper fawn colour. The Hare inhabits indiscriminately hilly or level regions, forest or field ; but it is most frequently found in flat or slightly elevated districts. It does not burrow, but chooses a form or seat, the situation of which varies with the season. In summer it is on the hillocks exposed to the north, in the shade of heaths or vines, that it loves to repose ; in winter, on the contrary, it betakes itself to sheltered places facing the south. It is often found squatted in a furrow between two ridges of earth, which have the same 490 MAMMALIA. colour as its coat: being thus confounded with the surrounding soil, it does not attract attention. Daring the daytime, the Hare does not generally stir from its form ; but as soon as the sun approaches the horizon, it goes forth to seek food — consisting of herbs, roots, and leaves. It is very fond of aromatic plants, such as thyme, sage, and parsley. It is also partial to the bark of some varieties of trees. Ho animal has so many enemies as the Hare. Snares and traps are set for it by poachers. Foxes, birds of prey — diurnal and nocturnal — and sportsmen, aided by Dogs, are all its implacable persecutors. To guard itself against so many perils, the poor creature has Fig. 212.— The Hare ( Lepus tiviidus). ears endowed with extraordinary mobility, and which catch the faintest sounds from a great distance ; four agile and very muscular limbs, which rapidly traverse space, and transport their owner quickly from its pursuers. In a word, its defence consists in perceiving danger and fleeing from it. The existence of the Hare is, we fear, only one long series of alarms and disturbances. Always on the alert, it can never enjoy more than a semi-repose, which is being continually broken by some menace.* Its timidity causes it to see death everywhere. La Fontaine, in speaking of the Hare, has well depicted this troubled state— “TJn souffle, une ombre, un rien, tout lui donnait la fievre.” It must not, however, be imagined that, when pursued, it runs by chance, and without purpose. Its tactics are, on the contrary, * That the Hare lives in this state of trepidation is incredible. — Ed. ORDER OF RODENTIA. 491 numerous and varied. It nearly always goes with the wind, so as to hear more distinctly the noise made by the hounds, and yet prevent its scent being carried to them. It alters and confuses its trail, to put its adversaries at fault and to gain time ; it doubles frequently, returning precisely in the same course, often jumping suddenly to one side to make a break in the scent. If close pressed, it crosses rivers, or conceals itself in the middle of a pool, only leaving the tip of its nose above water to respire. Others have been seen to take refuge among a flock of sheep, enter villages, flee into courtyards, make a hundred turns and detours on dungheaps, then spring on a wall, and start off again after resting. And their numerous wiles are often rewarded by success. When they are residents of a district, they invariably return to their old retreats, where they ma}^ be found even next day. In such case, when pursued, they do not go a great distance from home, but run in a circle. On the contrary, when the animal goes straight from the place where it was started, it may be concluded that it is a wandering Hare, probably a male. At the breeding season — that is, from January to March — there are many males that become wanderers, resulting from a paucity of females in their own localities. In France the Hare is hunted with a pack of Hounds (Fig. 213) ; but this sport, from its expense, is now becoming less common. It is also hunted with Greyhounds. Their fecundity is very great, and it is owing to this provident law of nature that the species is not totally destroyed by the numerous efforts used for its capture. The female brings forth three or four litters yearly, and each is composed of from three to five young ones, which are born with their eyes open and their bodies covered with fur. The Hare not making a nest, the young are deposited on the bare earth, among the herbage, or in a thicket. Nevertheless, the mother anxiously tends them, and even defends them against their enemies, though, it is feared, seldom with success. Twenty days they are suckled, after which the Levrets are sufficiently strong to attend to their own wants. Each then retires into solitude, and is soon old enough to reproduce. The mean duration of a Hare’s life is from eight to ten years.. The Hare has a remarkably fine sense of hearing, but it is 492 MAMMALIA. indifferently provided with vision, for not only are its eyes of feeble power, but by their position on the sides of the head they deprive the animal of the faculty of seeing directly before it. Not unfrequently, therefore, it literally runs against those objects it should avoid. Fig 213.— French Hare-hunting. Although suspicious and timid to excess, the Hare is yet susceptible of being tamed, when it becomes very familiar. Hr. Franklin had one which, during the winter, sat before the fire, between a large Angora Cat and a Greyhound, with both of which it lived on the best terms. It perched itself on the table Fig. 214.— Hare-shooting in France. 494 MAMMALIA. beside its master* and scratched his arm with its fore-paw to attract attention. The Hare may also be taught various tricks, such as beating a drum, dancing, and firing-off a pistol. But such is the power of the instinct of liberty in them, that, even when captured at the earliest age, they will frequently return to a wild state. The Hare is well known as a table delicacy ; it makes ex- cellent soup, appreciated alike by all classes. The mountain Hares, although not generally so fat or large as those from the plains or wood, have more flavour, as they principally feed on aromatic plants. Those which live in low, marshy situations should be absolutely rejected, for their flesh is pale and of bad quality. The law of Moses and the Koran prohibits the use of Hare’s flesh as food, doubtless because of its stimulating pro- perties, which might, in Eastern climates, give rise to incon- venience. The fur of the Hare has its uses ; and before the introduction of silk for the purpose, it was employed in the manufacture of gentlemen’s hats. Among Hares are found individuals which are quite white ; these are the albinos of their race, and are characterised by red eyes. However, it is necessary to guard against confounding them with another species, familiarly known as Mountain Hares, whose pelage in the summer is of a greyish-fawn colour, but changes to white during the winter, and who inhabit the elevated summits of mountains and the northern regions of the two continents. The Hare is spread over the whole surface of the globe, and at all altitudes, except in Madagascar. Everywhere its habits are nearly the same. We will now pass to the Babbit. Closely allied to the Hare in its form and external aspect, the two differ greatly in habits. The Rabbit lives in societies, and retires into burrows. It is not found on the open plain, but chooses for its home places where there are hillocks and woody banks. Like the Hare, the Rabbit has not a preference for day ; but towards evening it comes forth and gambols about in the glades (Fig. 215), or nibbles the dewy herbage. It is particularly partial to moonlight for making its forays (Fig. 216). ' ORDER OF RODENTIA. 495 It has also, like the Hare, many enemies, and to escape them it takes refuge in its subterranean dwelling. As it has not the speed of its congener, it would be rapidly overtaken by Dogs if it trusted to its powers of flight. Its fear or anger is ex- pressed in a singular fashion, namely, by striking the ground with its hind foot ; some say it does this to warn its fellows of danger. The fecundity of the Hare, though great, cannot be com- pared with that of the Rabbit, for one female of the latter may Kg. 215. — Wild Rabbits (Lepus cuniculus). have seven or eight litters a year, with from four to eight in each. Some days before bringing forth the Rabbit excavates a chamber, which is specially destined for its progeny. This burrow, which is straight or crooked, as the case may be, invariably terminates in a circular apartment, furnished with a bed of dry herbage, which again is covered with a layer of down, that the mother has torn from the lower portion of h$r body. On this bed the young are deposited. As soon as 496 MAMMALIA. they are born the mother quits the burrow, after having carefully closed the entrance; and every day she comes to suckle her family, always renewing the same precautions at her departure. In about twenty days they are able to provide for themselves, and are strong enough to do without protection. These remain together, and soon make a burrow for themselves, where they live in common. Fig. 216. — Wild Babbits and Young. The Wild Rabbit, also called the Warren Rabbit (Fig. 217), is said to be a native of Africa, from whence it passed into Spain, then into France and Italy, and successively into all the warm and temperate parts of Europe ; it is also found in Asia Minor and in Persia. Everything leads to the belief that this species is the origin of our domestic Rabbit. ORDER OF RODENTIA. 497 The rearing of domestic Rabbits is, nowadays, frequently performed on a large scale. In country districts in France it has become the adjunct of every kind of farming. This is because it requires little expense, little trouble, is within the means of every one, and yields, when well conducted, a hand- some remuneration. This subject is well treated in the celebrated pamphlet entitled, “ The Art of Rearing Rabbits, and how to make a Revenue of Three Thousand Francs from them.” Fig. 217.— Warren Rabbits. In addition to the extensive operations in this respect carried on in large farms, and which can be made very profitable, when conducted with the skill and precaution that experience teaches, the Rabbit is also reared in cellars ; from this method, the dimensions of their residence being too restricted, only slender profits result. Rabbits so reared are often designated in France Cabbage Rabbits, because cabbages are the staple of their food. K K 498 MAMMALIA. They are exposed to a host of maladies ; and those that reach the market have a very inferior flavour to Warren Rabbits. Their flesh being insipid and unwholesome, it is lightly esteemed by the gens de gout . At the commencement of the seventeenth century, Olivier de Tig. 218. — Tame Eabbits. Serres published directions for rearing Rabbits. But what he had more particularly in view was the reproduction of the semi- savage, semi-domesticated animal, enclosed in a warren several acres in extent. Of course such conveniences are not in the power of all ; so the most general mode is depriving the Rabbit ORDER OF RODENTIA. 499 of liberty, confining it in boxes built for tbe purpose. Tbe fol- lowing are the rules laid down in order to arrive at the best results :■ — The Babbits are placed in a series of small compartments. These ought to be about six and a half feet square, separated in such a manner that they can see each other, and thus not be submitted to solitary confinement. They should be exposed to a southerly aspect, — it is indispensable that they be kept dry and well ven- tilated. Plenty of good litter, frequently renewed, should cover the floor, which ought to be of wood, and slightly sloped to favour drainage. At six months old the females are isolated, as at that time they are capable of breeding. A male is placed with each for intervals of eight days. The male, however, should be renewed from time to time, so as to give him rest. It is also necessary to separate the young from their parents as soon as they are weaned. All are then gathered together in one compartment, the dimensions of which varies according to the number of young Babbits. Food is given them at fixed hours — morning, mid-day, and evening. In summer this con- sists of herbage and vegetables of all kinds ; in winter, vetches, potatoes, hay, &c. Particular care should be taken not to mix their food with watery herbage. When their food is of a dry nature, water must be regularly supplied them. Taking into account the losses necessarily resulting under the influence of various causes, each Babbit may produce annually thirty young ones, and give a clear profit of twenty francs. If the undertaking is, therefore, on a large scale, it must prove remunerative. Among the different breeds of domestic Babbits must be men- tioned the Angora Babbit, originally derived from Asia Minor. Like the Cats and Goats bearing the same name, it is celebrated for the length and fineness of its hair. It is bred for its fur, which is of value. Not only is the flesh and the hair of the Babbit utilised, but its skin is also employed in the manufacture of gelatine. The Domestic Babbit is, therefore, a valuable animal. Not so the Wild Babbit, for, by its rapid multiplication, its burrowing habits, and its herbivorous tastes, it is to the agriculturist a veri- table scourge. For this reason it is hunted with perseverance, KK 2 500 MAMMALIA, ferrets being frequently employed as an auxiliary to drive it from the depths of its warren (Fig. 219). The. Rabbit is peculiar to the Old World. Those animals found in America resembling it are, properly speaking, Hares. Lagomys . — The Lagomys (Hare-Rats, from Aayws, a hare, and pis, a rat) differ from the other Leporidse in their round Fig. 219.— Ferreting Eabbits. slender ears, their short limbs, the absence of a tail, and their diminutive size. In their habits they much resemble the Rabbits. They inhabit steep mountains, and dig burrows among the rocks. The majority of known species are proper to Siberia ; one is found in the Rocky Mountains of America. . The most interesting is the Lagomys pika. This animal collects into societies in the months of August or September, and gathers ORDER OF RODENTIA. 501 provisions for the winter. These are composed of herbs, which the little Rodents dry in the sun, and afterwards pile up at the entrance to their burrow. They in this way form stacks about five feet in height and eight in diameter. The Pikas do not always derive advantage from their industry, for the wild in- habitants of the Siberian steppes gladly appropriate their hoards. ORDER OF INSECTIVORA. In this order are collected a certain number of Mammalia, which, with the general form of Hodents, have the character of feeding almost exclusively on insects. In this respect they resemble, as we will see hereafter, the Cheiroptera. Their dental system is constituted for this special mode of alimentation ; they have molars studded with conical points, and the other teeth (canines and incisors) usually very sharp. With regard to their principal external characteristics, it may be mentioned that they are of small size, with four limbs fur- nished with nails, and which are adapted for walking, swim- ming, and digging. They have the mammae underneath the belly, and in progression place the entire sole of the foot on the ground. Their intelligence is feebly developed, and scarcely permits their being domesticated. The habits of the Insectivora are extremely varied, a circum- stance that should not surprise us when we consider the diversity in the conformation of their organs of locomotion. Some, for instance, like the Hedgehog, seek their food on the ground ; while others, like the Tupaia, hunt for it on trees. The Moles, on the contrary, find their subsistence deep in the soil, and lead an entirely subterranean existence ; finally, the Desmans and some species of Shrew Mice are essentially aquatic. Several of these animals become torpid when the temperature is low, though it appears that torpor has also been observed in warm latitudes without such a cause. The Insectivora are encountered in all parts of the world except Australia, where they are represented by the Opossums, and other Marsupials. America is less abundantly provided with them than the Old World. ORDER OE INSECTIYORA. 503 We will divide this order into three families, each composed of a certain number of genera, which, again, are grouped around a typical genus : the families of Moles, Shrew Mice, and Hedge- hogs. Mole Family. — This family comprises four genera, which are closely allied to each other : the Moles, properly called, the Astro myctes, the Scalops, and the Chrysochlores. We will only speak in detail of the first, which is the best known ; limiting ourselves to pointing out the differences which separate the other three. Fig. 220. — Common Mole (Toly a europea). Genus Mole. — The Mole is a burrowing animal par excellence. Its entire organisation testifies to its mining instincts. Its anterior members, very short and strong, are terminated by large hands, with a sharp inner border, and the palm of which is rough and callous, and turned outwards in such a manner as to permit the animal, when excavating, to throw the rubbish to the right and left. The digits, five in number, are scarcely apparent ; yet terminated with long and powerful claws. With regard to the posterior members, whose action is less immediate and decisive, 504 MAMMALIA. they are not so strong as the anterior ones, and are armed with more slender nails. The body of the Mole has the appearance of a cylindrical mass, terminating in a cone at one of its extremities. There is no trace of a neck; the head abruptly succeeds the body without any depression or attenuation. At the end, and underneath the head, which gradually terminates in a point, sustained by a particular bone, in which the nostrils are pierced, is situated the mouth. The nose is, at the same time, a boring instrument, destined to second the action of the creature’s paws by a simultaneous effort. The cranium is very flat, elongated, and furnished with vigorous muscles. The entire body is covered by a fine, silky, thick, and short black hair. For a long time it was admitted that the Mole was destitute of vision. Creating for it a whimsical exception, it was pre- tended that nature had refused to give eyes to this subterranean dweller because it did not require them. This error was exposed by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who discovered in the Mole two black eyes, nearly imperceptible it is true, and deeply hidden among the sombre fur — a circumstance which had misled other observers. Certain anatomists, stubbornly clinging to their opinion, then pretended that the eyes of the Mole were only rudimentary organs, and quite unfit for vision. But inge- nious experiments have demonstrated that the Mole possesses, to a certain degree, the sense of sight. This sense, it is true, is exercised imperfectly, but that it exists can no longer be doubted. The Mole possesses a very acute sense of hearing. The ex- ternal auditive concha is entirely absent, but the internal ear is highly developed. Its olfactory organ is also excellent. The mouth, very widely cleft, is admirably furnished, containing not less than forty-four teeth, distributed in equal numbers in each jaw. When we have said that this animal, a lover of darkness, has a short, scantily-furnished tail, and ten teats beneath the abdomen* we have completed its portrait. Everybody knows the habits of the Mole ; we are aware that it passes its life below ground, occupied in making galleries, through which it runs with astonishing rapidity. Fertile, cultivated land is its favourite habitat. Wet or stony regions do not suit ORDER OE INSECTIYORA. 505 it, as they prove an obstacle to its labours. Digging with bead and paws, it rapidly hollows out wbat is in every sense its domain. In this way it makes a system of communicating passages, which well merit our attention. The system is composed of a central chamber, hollowed out in the form of a dome, from around which radiate seven or eight trenches, which, rectilinear at their origin, Fig. 221. — Section of interior of a Mole-hill. afterwards become canals, and send prolongations to the surface of the ground. The points where these galleries meet the upper face of the soil are marked by the little eminences of earth, named mole-hills, which are so frequently observed in the fields, and which are nothing more than the rubbish thrown out by the animal. The central excavation is the animal’s ordinary resting- place. To reach it, it has first to enter a circular gallery, situated 506 MAMMALIA. on the same floor as the radiating galleries ; then it passes into some one of the five conduits, which ascend obliquely towards another circular gallery of a smaller circumference than the first, and placed a little higher ; lastly, it penetrates the fortress by the only entrance to the dwelling, and which opens into the latter gallery. We say the only entrance, so far as the upper gallery is concerned ; but there exists another, diametrically opposite. This abuts on the lower part ; it is the head of a tunnel, which is strongly inflected below the line of the other works, and which afterwards rises to open into one of the principal communications that concentrate in the animal’s retreat. What is the meaning of this complicated labyrinth P This is a point which has not yet been solved. The most probable supposition is, that the excavator forms it to elude more easily the pursuit of its enemies. The Mole works at all seasons, exhibiting most energy in spring. During a great portion of the year it lives a solitary life, but in the months of March and July it seeks a mate. After their interview each reassumes its solitary habits. The female only goes with young a short time, and usually brings forth four or five, sometimes not so many, and which, when compared with the size of the mother, or the size which they themselves after- wards attain, are extremely large at birth. The Mole always arranges a comfortable asylum for the recep- tion of its progeny, and tends them with much solicitude. This nursery is situated in the most elevated part of its domain, and most frequently at the junction of several galleries. The roof of this apartment is sustained by pillars at equal distances from each other, and forms a large dome, the internal face of which has been well beaten, so as to make it resist the infiltration of water. The ground is covered by a thick layer of herbage and leaves ; and here dwell the young creatures so long as they are in capable of seeking their own food. The aliment of the Mole is chiefly composed of insects and earth-worms ; but it also eats Snails, and even the dead bodies of small mammals and birds. They are likewise partial to Frogs. The fact is apparent that the Mole is eminently carnivorous. Perhaps no animal, even among the most redoubtable Felidae, OEDEE OE INSECTIYOEA. 507 is impelled by a greater desire to destroy and feast upon living prey. “ The Mole,” says Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, “ does not experience a sense of hunger like other animals ; with it this want is of the most powerful description : it is an ex- haustion which is felt as a kind of frenzy.” It first attacks the belly of its victim, plunges the whole of its head into the pal- pitating entrails, and gloats with rapture over its carnage. Take two Moles of the same sex, place them before each other in a room, and in a very short time the strongest will have devoured the weakest. Moles rarely come to the surface of the ground, except when changing their residence, or when the two sexes are seeking each other. During the rainy period they take refuge in elevated places, but descend to the valleys when the dry weather arrives. Not- withstanding these precautions, they are at times sufferers from inundation. When the rivers overflow their banks, numbers may be seen flying from the flood, and trying to reach ground that the waters will not cover. Although Moles destroy an enormous quantity of larvse and perfect insects, they are none the less looked upon as very preju- dicial to agriculture, because of the mischief they commit in digging their galleries among cultivated plants. Although they do not feed on the roots of vegetables, as has often been sup- posed, they cut them in making their passages. In addition to this, when they are preparing their nest, they seize the plants by the root and gradually drag them underground, with the intention of converting them into a bed for their progeny. There have been found in the nest of one Mole no fewer than 402 leaved stalks of barley, which had been withdrawn from the surface of the ground in this way. Finally, the Mole-hills that stud the fields prove troublesome to the mower, and prevent him cutting the plants as close as desirable. Such are the complaints that agriculturists bring against this excavator. Certainly they are not altogether unfounded ; but then we respond by pointing out, on the other hand, the services the Mole renders as an insectivorous animal ; and again, in show- ing that these galleries, which are declared to be injurious, con- stitute so many natural drainage canals, incontestably useful. 508 After well considering the pros and cons of the question, we may be led to see that the amount of good is greater than the evil, and that the Mole ought to be classed in the category of animals which, if not useful, are at least inoffensive. It is necessary to say, however, that this opinion is far from being generally accepted, for Moles are pursued a entrance. There are men who specially devote themselves to their de- struction. The Mole-catcher has at his fingers’ ends the habits of his game. With experience he follows it through its galleries ; he knows that such a hillock, higher than the others, covers its nest, and that such another overhangs its seat. If exercising his vocation he arrives early in the morning, at the time when his prey is hard at work ; he keeps its movements in view, and whenever he chances to see the soil upheaving, he excavates rapidly with a spade behind the animal, so as to cut off its retreat. He then digs down, and is sure to find the animal in the Mole-hill in process of formation. For difficult occasions, the Mole-catcher has traps of various kinds, which he places in the most recently -made galleries. The trap most used is that of Delafaille (Fig. 222, a a'). It consists of a hollow wooden cylinder, from ten to twelve inches long, and of a diameter nearly equal to that of the Mole galleries. At each extremity is a valve which opens from without to within, but not from within to without. It will be understood what happens when the trap is placed in one of the runs. The Mole, anxious to repair the damage done to its thorough- fare, approaches the tube, pushes through the valve ; this closes, and it is a prisoner. The inventor of this trap has still further improved it by a thin stalk placed vertically in the tube, and terminating externally in a piece of paper. The Mole, excited by the noise of the agitation of the paper, which it thinks caused by some prey, rushes at it, and in doing so raises up the valve. Two other arrangements of Mole-trap are shown in Fig. 222, b c. These are a kind of Mouse-trap, which is placed, not in the interior of galleries, like that of Delafaille, but outside, on the Mole-hill. The time preferred to destroy Moles is that at which the young are about to be brought forth. As soon as a nest is recognised, ORDER OF INSECTIYOEA. 509 the Mole- catchers collect around it, and with a spade the various galleries are cut off ; then the apartment itself is opened, and the nest reached. Moles are also got rid of by poison ; insects and other animal matters impregnated with poisonous substances being introduced into their burrows. Strong fumigations are also used to drive them away, such as sprinkling their galleries with an infusion of garlic and oil of petroleum. It is very difficult to keep Moles in captivity, as much trouble is entailed in procuring for them the enormous number of insects they daily devour. To this it may be added that the Mole can- not accommodate itself to confinement ; to enclose it in a box, or even in a room, is to bring about its death. It is soon affected A A Fig. 222. — Mole-traps. with subterranean nostalgia, and pines away for want of the aliment necessary to its febrile activity. Dr. Franklin, however, relates that an American, Mr. Titian Peale, succeeded in taming one. This Mole ate and drank a great deal; its regimen consisted of cooked or raw meat. Naturally lively, it followed the hand of its master by scent, frequently went to burrow under ground, but always returned for its food. The flesh of the Mole is not comestible ; it exhales a repugnant odour, and rapidly becomes putrid. Owing to the small size of its skin its fur cannot be of great utility. In the reign of Louis XV. the ladies of the Court put it to an unheard-of use — to compensate for the parsimony of nature they thought fit to replace their eyebrows by narrow strips of Mole’s skin. This is 510 an artifice which onr eUg antes have not yet thought of, and we think it our duty to bring it to their notice. Moles inhabit the temperate regions of the old and new continents, though they are most numerous in Europe. Three species are known : the Common Mole, of which there are several varieties ; the Blind Mole, so named in consequence of its eyes being reduced to little openings which are no more visible than the point of a pin,— it inhabits Italy ; lastly, the Woogura Mole, a native of Japan. Genus Astromyctes. — The Astromyctes, North American animals, greatly resemble the Moles ; but the fore parts of their bodies are much more developed in comparison with the hind parts ; the tail is also longer and bushier, and their snout is terminated by membranous appendages which have the figure of a star. Their habits are the same as those of the Mole. The only species known is the Star-nosed or Radiated Mole. Genus Scalops. — It is particularly by the dental system that the Scalops are distinguished from the Moles. They have only thirty- six teeth, twenty of which are in the upper jaw, and sixteen in the lower. Their tail is very short and completely naked. They are fond of living near water, and are constantly found in marshy places or near streams. In this respect they differ much from the Moles, but their habits otherwise are much the same. Genus Chrysocliloris.- — The animals of this genus are the repre- sentatives of Moles in South Africa. Their aspect is very singular. They have only the rudiment of a tail, and their snout, abruptly truncated, is far from being so much developed as that of the Mole. On first casting our eyes upon one of these creatures nothing is to be seen but an unshapen mass, the nature or habits of which could not be imagined ; but on careful examination the limbs are seen, which scarcely reach beyond the body, and are terminated in front by three toes, armed with enormous curved and sharp claws, and behind by five toes, as in the other genera of this family. The toes of the fore-feet have the peculiar shovel- like disposition noticed in the Moles. The pelage of the Chrysochlores offers that iridescent play of colours which is only found in birds and fishes, and to this cir- cumstance they owe the name of Golden Moles, which was given them last century. ORDER OF INSECTIVORA. 511 The Chrysochlores burrow like the Moles, and pass their lives underground. Family of Shrew Mice. — The animals included in this family have a certain resemblance to Fats, but their muzzle is somewhat trumpet-shaped, pointed or flattened, and this feature markedly distinguishes them from these Fodents. Their habits are very diverse according to the genera. These are five in number : the true Shrew Mice, the Solenodons, the Macroscelides, the Fhyn- chocyons, and the Desmans. Genus Shrew Mouse. — A superficial observer would be apt to confound the Shrew Mouse (Fig. 223) with the Mouse. They are nearly of the same form and size ; but the Shrew Mouse has a more Fig. 223.— Water Shrew ( Crossopus fodiens ). tapering head, the ears shorter, and the tail not so long. Besides these differences, the characteristics to be found in the dentition of this creature place an impassable barrier between the Fodent and Insectivore. The Shrew Mice offer us examples of the smallest Mammals, certain species being much more diminutive than the Mouse. These animals are, like the Moles, very badly endowed with vision ; their eyes are so small that it is almost impossible to distinguish the pupils. Long moustaches ornament their muzzle. Their hair is silky, thick, and varying in colour between a grey and a brown ; it is very short on the head, tail, and paws. The Shrew Mice feed on worms, insects, snails, and grain 512 MAMMALIA. occasionally. They lead a solitary life in holes, which they find ready-made, or which they dig for themselves ; they seldom leave these retreats during the day. In winter, when food is scarce, they force their way into barns, stables, &c. The various species, however, do not frequent the same kind of locality. Some show a great preference for woods, and generally all the dry regions ; others only inhabit damp meadows on the banks of streams. Some swim with ease, aided by their tail, which is flattened in the form of an oar, and seek their subsistence about water. Shrew Mice are furnished with a gland on each flank, which is surrounded with bristly hair, and secretes a greasy matter, having a penetrating odour like musk. This odour is so powerful that it is most repugnant to other animals. The Cat pursues and kills them, but never eats them. For a long time it had been believed that the bite inflicted by these tiny Insectivora on domestic animals was poisonous. This is a mistake ; their bite is completely inoffensive. There have been found, along with Egyptian money, the bones of the Shrew Mouse, a fact which goes to prove that the ancient Egyptians placed it among their sacred animals. Plutarch ex- plains this circumstance by saying that the Shrew Mouse is deprived of sight, and that, according to the Egyptians, darkness is older than light. The explanation is as obscure as the fact. Shrew Mice are found in every part of the globe ; they are met on the two continents in all latitudes. Nevertheless, it is in Europe, and particularly in France and Germany, that they are most numerous. The principal species are the Common Shrew Mouse, or Piper, which inhabits Central and Southern Europe ; the Etruscan Shrew Mouse, proper to the South of France and certain parts of Italy, — it is the smallest species in the genus, not measuring more than two and a half inches long, head and tail included ; the Pat- tailed or Giant Shrew Mouse, the largest of the genus, its size attaining nearly that of the Norway Pat, — it inhabits India and the Indian Archipelago, and the odour it exhales is so powerful that it puts serpents to flight, and taints the water in vessels it passes near; lastly, the Water Shrew and the Oared Shrew, which are aquatic in their habits, and are found in the whole of Europe, — they are also well known in the suburbs of Paris. ORDER OE INSECTXVORA. 513 Genus Solenodon. — The Solenodons differ very little from, the Shrew Mice, except in their dentition. They have a long, bare, scaly tail, and inhabit the New World, that is, the islands of Hayti and Cuba. Only one species is known, the Solenodon paradoxal. Along with the Solenodons, it is convenient to place a little animal discovered in Japan about twenty years ago, and for which some authors have created a new genus. This is the Urstriche, whose principal characteristics, besides the general form of the Shrew Mouse, are an elongated, movable snout, and a long tufted tail. Genus Macroscelides. — Authorities separate this genus from the Fig. 224. — The Elephant Shrew (M. proboscideus). preceding. The Macroscelides, or, more familiarly, Elephant Shrews, are essentially leaping animals ; it is the Jerboa type transferred to the Xnsectivora. They have the posterior members much longer than the anterior ; hence their name, which, accord- ing to the Greek etymology, signifies large thighs (paKpos large, (TKe\o